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COUESES  AND  METHODS. 


A    HAl^DBOOK    FOE    TEACHEES 


PRIMARY,    GRAMMAR,    AND   UNGRADED 
SCHOOLS. 


BY 

JOHN   T.   PRINCE,   Ph.D., 

AGENT  OF   MASSACHUSETTS   BOARD    OP  EDUCATION;    AUTHOR  OF 

METHODS  OP  INSTRUCTION  AND   ORGANIZATION  IN 

THE    SCHOOLS   OF  GERMANY. 


/      ^ 


3i<KO 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. : 

PUBLISHED   BY    GINN   &   COMPANY. 

1895. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1886,  by 

JOHN  T.  PRmCE. 
in  tne  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Typography  by  J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.,  Boston,  U.S.A. 
Prbsswork  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  U.S.A. 


L\5 
PREFACE. 


r  I  iHLS  book  is  not  intended  to  be  an  exhaustive  or 
~^  philosophical  treatise  upon  Education ;  nor  does  the 
author  claim  for  the  ideas  advanced  in  it  much  that  is 
new  or  original.  It  is  written  in  response  to  a  frequently 
expressed  desire  in  various  quarters  for  a  brief  plan  of 
studies  that  may  be  pursued  in  elementary  schools,  and  for 
a  simple  and  direct  statement  of  good  methods  of  organ- 
ization, teaching,  and  discipline.  While  the  hints  and 
suggestions  are  directed  mainly  to  untrained  and  inexperi- 
enced teachers,  it  is  hoped  that  they  may  commend  them- 
selves to  the  judgment  of  the  best  teachers,  as  being  based 
\^     upon  correct  principles  of  teaching. 

V  ^  A  Course  of  Studies  may  be  so  general  as  to  be  of  little 
(  direct  use,  or  so  definite  as  to  apply  to  few  schools.  It 
1  has  been  the  aim  in  preparing  the  courses  here  presented 
to  avoid  both  extremes,  with  the  understanding  that  they 
may  be  modified  to  suit  existing  conditions.  The  best 
Course  that  can  be  made  is  simply  a  guide  for  the  teacher 
in  pointing  out  what  subjects  are  to  be  taught,  the  order 
in  which  subjects  and  parts  of  subjects  are  to  be  pre- 
sented, and  the  approximate  amount  to  be  done  in  a  given 
time.  The  best  use  of  such  a  Course  will  be  determined 
not  so  much  by  the  rigidity  with  which  it  is   foll^i^d  as 


IV  PREFACE. 

by  the  way  it  is  interpreted  and  applied  to  the  wants  of 
the  pupils.  In  other  words,  the  subjects  of  study  are  of 
less  consequence  than  the  way  in  which  they  are  taught. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  comparatively  little  space  has 
been  given  to  the  course  or  plan  of  studies  and  much  to 
methods  of  teaching. 

Nearly  all  of  the  topical  outlines  presented  in  Part  II. 
have  been  tried  in  the  schoolroom  and  found  to  be  prac- 
tical and  helpful.  A  few  of  them  were  taken  in  the  first 
instance  from  professional  books  and  periodicals,  with  no 
thought  of  republication,  and  therefore  their  authorship  was 
not  preserved.  So  far  as  the  authors  are  known,  due  credit 
has  been  given. 

It  should  be  said  that  while  the  suggestions  given  in 
Parts  II.  and  III.  are  meant  to  apply  to  any  Course  of 
studies,  the  Course  as  here  outlined  should  not  be  used 
alone.  The  bare  outline  of  subjects  as  given  in  Part  I. 
would  be  likely  to  be  misunderstood  and  misapplied  with- 
out the  explanations  given  in  Part  II. 

Teachers    of    each    grade    should    familiarize   themselves 

with  tlie  requirements  and  methods  of  all  other  grades,  so 

as  to   know   what   has   been,   or   what   should   have   been, 

previously  done,  and  also  to  know  the   kind   of  work  for 

which  they  are  to  prepare  their  pupils. 

J.  T.  P. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  COURSES  OF   STUDY. 

PAGE 

1.  Course  for  Graded  Schools 1 

2.  Course  for  Ungraded  Schools 21 


II.   METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

1.  Importance  of  Method 27 

2.  Objects  of  Education 29 

3.  General  Principles 33 

4.  General  Suggestions. 

Graded  and  Ungraded  Schools 40 

Purpose  and  Plan 42 

The  Recitation 43 

Objects 43 

Teaching 43 

Drill 44 

Supplementary  Information 44 

Topical  Study  and  Recitation 44 

Attention 45 

Economy  of  Time 46 

Examinations 46 

5.  Rkading. 

(1)  Definition 48 

(2)  First  Steps 48 

(3)  Transition 51 

(4)  Silent  Reading 52 

(5)  Oral  Reading 52 

Objects 52 

Natural  Expression 53 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Pronunciation 55 

Clear  Enunciation 56 

Vocal  Drill 57 

Fluency  and  Sight-Reading 58 

Regular  Reading-Lessons 59 

Preparation  of  Lesson 60 

(6)  Principles 62 

(7)  Cultivation  of  Taste 64 

8.   Writing. 

(1)  When  begun 66 

(2)  Appliances 66 

(3)  Grading 66 

(4)  Objects  and  Means 67 

Words  and  Sentences 67 

Single  Letters 68 

Position 68 

Movements 70 

Copy-Book 71 

Rate 73 

7.   Spelling. 

(1)  Objects,  etc 74 

(2)  Study 74 

(3)  Recitation 75 

(4)  Rules 77 

(5)  Examination  and  Correction - .  77 

(6)  Reviews  and  Recreations 78 

3.  Language. 

(1)  Defined 80 

(2)  Objects 80 

(3)  Means 81 

Regular  Studies 81 

^        Imitation 81 

Copying 82 

Object-Lessons 82 

Actions 83 

Pictures 84 

Dictation 86 

Information  Lessons ■ 87 


CONTENTS,  Vll 

PAOH 

Story-Telling  and  Sight-Reading 87 

Paraphrasing 89 

Letter- Writing    89 

Business  Forms  and  Notices 90 

Elliptical  Sentences 91 

Compositions 92 

Outlines 93 

False  Syntax 96 

(4)  Correction  of  Written  Work 97 

9.  Grammar. 

(1)  Defined 101 

(2)  Outline  of  Study 101 

(3)  Definitions 103 

(4)  Etymology 104 

(5)  Syntax 106 

(6)  Parsing 107 

(7)  Analysis 108 

(8)  Synthesis 109 

(9)  Correction  of  False  Syntax 110 

10.  Arithmetic. 

(1)  Objects,  etc 112 

(2)  First  Steps 113 

(3)  Primary  Drill , 117 

(4)  Practical  Problems 119 

(5)  Notation  and  Numeration 120 

(6)  Fundamental  Processes 121 

(7)  Fractions 123 

(8)  Applications 127 

Weights  and  Measures 127 

Percentage 128 

(9)  Definitions  and  Rules 131 

(10)  Mental  Arithmetic 132 

(11)  Explanations 135 

(12)  Short  Processes 136 

11.  Geography. 

(1)  Objects 1.37 

(2)  Preparatory  Lessons 138 

Local  Geograpliy 138 


VUl  CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

Plan-Drawing 143 

Study  of  JNIaps 146 

Moulding-Board 146 

(3)  General  Lessons  from  Globe  and  Maps 146 

Earth  as  a  "Whole 146 

Continents 147 

(4)  Countries  and  Sections 149 

(5)  Mathematical  and  Physical  Features 153 

(6)  Map-Drawing 157 

(7)  The  Kecitation 159 

(8)  Geographical  Eeading 161 

12.  History. 

(1)  Objects 162 

(2)  Preparatory  "Work 162 

(3)  Topical  Study 165 

(4)  The  Eecitation 167 

(5)  Topical  Reviews 169 

(6)  Historical  Reading 171 

(7)  Historical  Recreations 172 

13.  Physiology  and  Hygiene. 

(1)  Object  of  Study 173 

(2)  Means 173 

(3)  Outline  and  Methods 173 

(4)  Dissection 178 

(5)  Emergencies 180 

(6)  Use  of  Tobacco 181 

(7)  Use  of  Alcohol 181 

14.  Observation  Lessons. 

(1)  General  Suggestions 188 

(2)  Schedule  of  Subjects  and  Times 189 

(3)  Color 191 

(4)  Place 193 

(5)  Human  Body 196 

(6)  Plants 198 

Primary  Grades 198 

Grammar  Grades 202 

(7)  Animals 209 

Primary  Grades 211 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAUK 

Grammar  Grades 213 

(8)  Minerals 226 

(9)  Astronomy 231 

(10)  Physics . . . , .  233 

15.   Information  Lessons. 

Primary  Grades 245 

Grammar  Grades 247 

Newspaper 248 

Civil  Government 249 

Animals,  Plants,  Minerals 249 

K).   Drawing. 

Form 252 

Industrial  Drawing 259 

Materials 259 

Preparation  of  Lesson 259 

Working  Drawings 260 

Construction  of  Objects 260 

Perspective 260 

Invention  and  Design 261 

Outline  of  Study 261 

17.  Singing. 

Illustrative  Lessons 267 

The  Scale 267 

Two-part  Measure 268 

Three-part  Measure 270 

Four-part  Measure 271 

Singing  from  Figures 272 

Regular  Staff  Notation -275 

Notes  and  Rests 277 

18.  Memory  Lessons 279 

19.  BcsY-WoRK 280 

20.  Physical  Exercise 283 

III.  ORGANIZATION,  MORAL  TRAINING,  AND 
GOVERNMENT. 
1.   Organization. 

(1)  School  Buildings  290 

Locality 290 


CONTENTS. 

PASS 

Privies      290 

Size  of  Schoolrooms 290 

Lighting 291 

Ventilation  and  Heating 291 

Furniture  and  Furnishings 293 

Blackboards 294 

(2)  Apparatus 294 

(3)  Reference  Books  295 

(4)  Classification 305 

Graded  Schools 305 

Basis  of  Classification 306 

Size  of  Classes 306 

Divisions 307 

Intervals 307 

Partially  Graded  Schools 309 

Ungraded  Schools 309 

(5)  Daily  Programme  of  Recitation  and  Study 311 

(6)  Records  and  Reports 316 

Moral  Training. 

(1)  Importance  321 

(2)  Regular  Studies,  Means  not  Ends 322 

(8)  Influence  of  Example 324 

(4)  Regular  Talks 325 

(5)  Incidental  Instruction 326 

(0)  Devotional  Exercise  326 

(7)  Memorizing  Gems  327 

(b)  Govei'nment 328 

Defined    328 

Formation  of  Habit 329 

Obedience   330 

Truthfulness 331 

Industry    332 

Order  and  Neatness  .   333 

Politeness 333 

Contamination   334 

Condition  of  the  School  Premises , 335 

Punishment  .    . .    .....  336 

Conditions  of  Good  Government 337 

Self-Control 338 

Illustrative  Example 339 

(9^  Sympathy 34S 


Pakt   I. 

COURSE    OF   STUDIES   FOR   GRADED 
SCHOOLS. 

INTRODUCTORY   NOTE. 

The  following  course  includes  a  plan  of  work  for 
nine  years,  divided  into  periods  of  five  months  each. 
The  work  of  the  ninth  year  may,  if  it  is  desired,  be 
incorporated  into  one  of  the  courses  of  the  high  school, 
making  tlie  grammar  school  course  complete  at  the 
close  of  the  eighth  year. 

In  addition  to  the  subjects  named,  instruction  in  the 
following  subjects  is  given  throughout  the  entire 
course. 

DRAWING,    SINGING,    INIEMORY    LESSONS,    GENERAL    IN- 
FORMATION  LESSONS,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

For  plan  of  work  in  these  subjects,  see  Part  II., 
where  specific  directions  in  reference  to  methods  of 
teaching  will  be  found.     Attention   is   also   given   to 

MORALS    AND     MANNERS    and    to    PHYSICAL    CULTURE. 

For  details  in  these  important  departments,  see  pages 
321  and  283. 


2  COUKSE   OF   STUDIES 

FIRST   YEAR.     FIRST   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Color.  —  Differences  and  resemblances. 

Form.  —  Differences  and  resemblances. 

Size  and  Weight.  —  Relative. 

Place.  —  Opposites;  as,  over,  under;  above,  below;  be- 
hind, before. 

Qualities.  —  Most  prominent ;  as,  rough,  smooth,  hard, 
soft,  heavy,  light. 

Plants.  —  Common  flowers  observed  and  compared. 

Human  Body.  —  Parts  of  body  and  movements. 

LANGUAGE. 

Talking.  —  Facts  and  stories  in  connection  with  obser- 
vation and  reading  lessons. 

Reading.  —  Words  and  sentences  from  blackboard, 
chart,  and  first  pages  of  two  First  readers. 

Writing.  —  Words  and  sentences  from  blackboard  and 
from  cards.  Practice  upon  letter  ^.  with  and  without 
copy. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Develop  numbers  from  1  to  5.     Count  objects  to  10. 


FIRST   YEAR.     SECOND   HALF. 

OBSERVATION  LESSONS. 

Color.  —  Red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  violet,  gray, 
brown. 


FOR   GRADED    SCHOOLS.  3 

Form.  —  Sphericcal,  cubical,  and  cylindrical  bodies; 
points,  lines,  angles;    moulding  and  drawing. 

Size  and  Weight.  —  Relative. 

Place.  —  Objects  arranged  from  dictation  ;  position,  di- 
rection.    Plan-drawing  begun. 

Huiuau  Body.  —  Parts  of  body  and  movements. 

Plants.  —  Flower,  leaf,  stem ;  common  plants  observed 
and  named. 

Animals.  —  Most  familiar  animals  compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading-.  —  Sentences  from  blackboard,  chart,  and  sev- 
eral First  readers. 

Spelling.  —  Words  from  readers. 

Talking  and  Writing.  —  Statements  and  stories  in 
connection  with  reading  and  observation  lessons. 
Copying  from  blackboard  and  from  cards.  Practice 
upon  letters 

ARITHMETIC. 

Develop  numbers  to  10  by  objects.  Express  by  words 
and  figures  all  combinations  to  6  at  sight.  Counting 
objects  to  50. 


SECOND   YEAR.     FIRST   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Color.  —  Shades  and  tints  of  common  colors. 
Form.  —  Surface,  edge,  corner,  triangle.     Design  with 
splints,  colored  paper,  etc. 


4  COURSE   OF   STUDIES 

Place.  —  Relative  distance ;  also  inch,  foot,  yard.   Plans : 

top  of  desk,  floor  of  schoolroom. 
Qualities.  —  Tough,  brittle,    elastic,  fragrant,    opaque, 

transparent,  porous,  fluid,  solid.     Parts  of  objects; 

form  of  parts  ;  uses. 
Plants.  —  Parts  of  plant :  root,  stem,  leaf,  bud,  flower. 

Names  of  common  plants. 
Human  Body.  —  Organs  of  senses. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading.  —  Easier  pieces  of  two  Second  readers.  Easy 
sight-reading  from  several  First  readers  daily. 

Spelling-.  —  Words  from  readers.     Oral  and  written. 

Composition.  —  Oral  and  written  statements  and  stories 
in  connection  with  reading  and  observation  les- 
sons. Teach  use  of  capitals,  period,  and  question- 
mark. 

Writing.  —  Copying  from  blackboard  and  cards.  Writ- 
ing from  dictation.     Practice  upon  letters 

ARITHMETIC. 

Combination  with  objects  to  15 ;  without  objects  to 
10.  Teach  halves  and  fourths.  Original  problems  with 
objects.  Counting  to  100.  Expression  by  words  and 
figures.     Signs  +,  — ,  X,  ^  used. 


FOR  GRADED  SCHOOLS.  5 

SECOND  YEAR.  SECOND  HALF. 

OBSERVATION    LESSONS. 

Color.  —  Hues,  tints,  shades. 

Form.  —  Prism,  pyramid,  cone,  square,  oblong ;  designs 
with  splints,  colored  paper,  etc. 

Weight  and  Measure.  —  Pound,  ounce,  peck,  gallon, 
quart,  pint,  gill. 

Place.  —  Points  of  compass.  Plan-drawing  of  school- 
room and  yard. 

Plants.  —  Parts  and  shape  of  leaf :  blade,  veins,  mar- 
gin ;  parts  of  flowers :  petals,  stamens,  pistils ;  names 
of  common  plants  and  trees. 

Animals.  —  Common  birds  and  fowls.  External  parts 
observed  and  compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading.  —  Second  readers  completed.  Sight-reading 
from  several  First  readers  daily. 

Spelling-.  —  Words  from  readers.     Oral  and  written. 

Composition.  —  Punctuation  and  capital  letters.  Letter- 
writing.  Stories  from  pictures.  Statements  and  stories 
in  connection  with  observation  and  reading  lessons. 

Writing.  —  Copying  from  card  or  blackboard.  Writing 
from  dictation.  Copy-book  practice.  Special  prac- 
tice upon 

<?^j       ej       i^j       ^^       A^       Sj       /,        X 

ARITHMETIC. 

Operations  to  25.     Building  of  tables ;  teach  thirds 
and  sixths.    Original  problems,  with  and  without  objects. 


COURSE   OF   STUDIES 


Dozen,  score,  quire.     Coins  of  United  States.     Writing 
of  numbers  to  100.     Roman  notation  to  XX. 


THIRD   YEAR.     FIRST   HALF. 

OBSERVATION  LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Growth  from  seed  to  fruit  traced. 

Color.  —  Complementary   colors.     Harmony  of  colors. 

Arrangement  in  designs. 
Form.  —  Spheroid,  circle,  ellipse,  oval.     Invention  and 

design. 
Place.  —  Simple  plans  drawn  to  scale. 
Human   Body.  —  Parts   of   body.     Movements.     Uses 

of  parts.     Health  of  parts. 
Home    Geography.  —  Observation    of     neighborhood. 

Plans  drawn  and  moulded.     Land  surface.     Water 

surface.     Give  geographical  names. 

LANGUAGE. 

Beading.  —  Easier  pieces  of  two  Third  readers.  Sight- 
reading  daily  from  several  Second  readers. 

Spelling.  —  Writing  of  words  and  sentences  selected 
from  the  readers. 

Composition.  —  Statements  and  stories  in  connection 
with  observation  and  reading  lessons.     Letter-writing. 

Writing.  —  Copying  from  blackboard,  cards,  and  read- 
ers.    Writing  from  dictation.     Practice  upon 

^.    ^    c<    c^  oC   c^  cT 

Copy-book  practice. 


FOR   GRADED   SCHOOLS. 


ARITHMETIC. 


Operations  to  50,  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion, and  division.  Teach  eighths.  Reading  and  writ- 
ing of  numbers  to  1000.  Roman  notation  to  L. 
Building  of  tables,  including  common  weights  and 
measures.  Original  problems"  involved  in  common 
transactions  and  making  change. 


THIRD   YEAR.     SECOND   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Color.  —  Continuation  of  work  of  First  Half.     Review. 

Form.  —  Systematic  review  of  entire  work. 

Human  Body.  —  Continuation  of  work  of  First  Half. 

Animals.  —  Common  birds  and  insects.  Parts  and 
habits  observed  and  compared. 

Home  Geography.  —  Teach  geographical  ideas  based 
upon  observation,  using  geographical  language :  bodies 
of  land;  bodies  of  water;  projections  of  land  and 
water  ;  climate  (weather)  ;  soil ;  productions ;  draw- 
ing and  moulding  of  neighborhood  and  town. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading-.  —  Selection  from  two  Third  readers.     Easy 

sight-reading  daily. 
Spelling.  —  Writing  of  words  and  sentences  dictated 

from  readers  and  from  other  sources. 
Composition.  —  Statements  and   stories   in  connection 

with  observation  and  reading  lessons,  and  pictures. 

Letter-writing. 


O  COUESE   OF    STUDIES 

Writing.  —  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation.    Copy- 
book practice. 
Practice  upon 

f,  p  ^,  y,  fj  ^^C  ^C  6;  fe^  (x 

ARITHMETIC. 

Operations  to  144,  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion, and  division.  Ninths,  twelfths.  Reading  and 
writing  of  numbers  to  100,000.  Roman  notation  to  M. 
Original  problems  involved  in  doing  errands  at  a  store. 
Rapid  and  accurate  adding  of  columns  of  two  figures. 


FOURTH   YEAR.     FIRST   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Name  and  description  of  parts  of  a  plant,  of 

a  leaf,  of  a  flower. 
Animals.  —  Sponge  and  coral  examined.     Star-fish  and 

sea-urchin  examined  and  compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 

Spelling.  —  Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spell- 
ing-book and  from  other  sources. 

Composition.  —  Statements  in  connection  with  observa- 
tion lessons.  Abstracts  from  memory.  Stories  from 
pictures.     Letter-writing. 


FOR   GRADED   SCHOOLS. 


Writing.  —  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation.   Copy- 
book practice. 
Single-letter  practice  upon 

sf,     J,   /t,    /,     i,     ^,     i^    c^   ^ 

ARITHMETIC. 

Operations  to  10,000,  in  addition  and  subtraction. 
Tenths  and  hundredths  written  decimally.  Oral  exer- 
cises daily,  involving  yards,  feet,  inches,  gallons,  quarts, 
pints. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Preparatory  work  reviewed  and  continued.  People 
(races,  occupations,  settlements,  government,  religion, 
states  of  society).  Study  of  maps  of  known  places 
(scale,  natural  features,  etc.). 


FOURTH   YEAR.     SECOND   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 
Animals.  —  Oyster,  clam,  and  snail  examined  and  com- 
pared.    Lobster  and  crab  examined  and  compared. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 

Spelling-.  —  Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spell- 
ing-book and  from  other  sources. 


10  COURSE    OF    STUDIES 

Composition.  —  Same  as  First  Half. 

Writing-.  —  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation.    Copy- 
book practice. 
Single-letter  practice  upon 

^  ^,  cf  4  (2;  (^ 

ARITHMETIC. 

Operations  to  10,000,  in  multiplication  and  division. 
Writing  and  reading  whole  numbers.  Teach  by  objects 
to  add  and  subtract  easy  fractions  in  halves,  fourths,  and 
eighths.     Notation  in  United  States  money. 

Oral  exercises  daily,  involving  yards,  feet,  inches,  gal- 
lons, quarts,  pints,  bushels,  pecks,  dozen,  quire. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Earth  as  a  whole :  form  and  motions  of  the  earth ; 
hemispheres;  bodies  of  land  ;  bodies  of  water ;  climate; 
productions ;  commerce. 


FIFTH   YEAR.     FIRST   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  History  of  plant  life.     Embryo,  growth,  bud. 
Animals.  —  Spider,  daddy-long-legs  ;  grasshopper,  drag- 
on-fly ;  squash-bug,  beetle ;  examined  and  compared. 


FOR   GRADED   SCHOOLS.  11 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading-.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 

Spelling. —  Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spell- 
ing-book and  from  other  sources. 

Composition.  —  Statements  and  compositions  in  connec- 
tion with  the  observation,  reading  and  information 
lessons.  Abstracts  from  memol-y.  Dictation  exer- 
cises.    Stories  from  pictures.     Letter-writing. 

Writing-.  —  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation.  Copy- 
book practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Operations  in  whole  numbers  to  millions,  involving 
common  weights  and  measures.  Addition  and  subtrac- 
tion of  fractions,  both  common  and  decimal,  to  twelfths 
and  thousandths.    Oral  exercises,  abstract  and  concrete. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Study  of  North  and  South  America  by  topics. 
Map-drawing  by  tracing. 


FIFTH   YEAR.     SECOND   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  History  of  plant  life.     Flowers,  fruit,  seeds. 
Animals.  —  Flies,  butterflies,  and  moths;  ants,  wasps, 
and  bees  ;  examined  and  compared. 


12  COURSE   OF   STUDIES 


LANGUAGE. 


Reading.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 

Spelling-. — Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spell- 
ing-book and  from  other  sources. 

Composition.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 

Writing.  —  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation.  Copy- 
book practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Multiplication  and  division  of  fractions,  both  common 
and  decimal,  to  twelfths  and  thousandths.  Operations 
involving  use  of  United  States  money  and  common 
weights  and  measures. 

Oral  exercises  with  abstract  and  concrete  numbers. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Study  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia  by 
topics. 

Map-drawing  by  tracing. 


SIXTH    YEAR.     FIRST   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Differences  in  stems,  roots,  leaves. 
Minerals.  —  Common  minerals   compared  and  named. 

Compared  with  reference   to  hardness,  color,  form, 

structure,  lustre. 


FOR   GRADED   SCHOOLS.  13 


LANGUAGE. 


Reading.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 

Spellingr.  —  Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spell- 
ino:-book  and  from  other  sources. 

Composition.  —  Statements  and  compositions  in  con- 
nection with  the  observation,  reading,  and  informa- 
tion lessons.  Abstracts  from  memory.  Dictation 
exercises.     Stories  from  pictures.     Letter-writing. 

Writing.  —  Copy-book  practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Factors  and  multiples.  Addition  and  subtraction  of 
common  and  decimal  fractions.  Oral  exercises  involv- 
ing common  weights  and  measures. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Study  of  countries  and  sections  by  topics:    United 
States,  Mexico,  West  Indies,  British  America,  Brazil. 
Map-drawing. 
Earth  as  a  whole :  mathematical  and  physical  features. 


SIXTH  YEAR.     SECOND   HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Differences  in  flowers,  fruits,  and  seeds. 
Minerals.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 


14  COURSE   OF   STUDIES 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 

Spelling-.  —  Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spell- 
ing-book and  from  other  sources. 

Composition.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 

Writing.  —  Copy-book  practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Multiplication  and  division  of  fractions,  common  and 
decimal. 

Oral  exercises  involving  common  weights  and  meas- 
ures. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Study  of  countries  and  sections  by  topics:  British 
Empire,  France,  Germany,  Russian  Empire ;  also  State 
and  section  in  which  pupils  live.     Map-drawing. 

Mathematical  and  physical  features  of  the  earth  as  a 
whole. 


SEVENTH   YEAR.     FIRST   HALF. 

OBSERVATION    LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Differences  in  habits.     Many  kinds  of  shrubs 

and  trees  compared  and  named. 
Animals.  —  Marked   and   essential    characteristics    of 

fishes  ;   frogs  and  toads  ;   reptiles  ;   birds  ;  mahiraals. 

As  many  of  each  examined  as  practicable. 


FOR   GRADED   SCHOOLS.  15 


LANGUAGE. 


Reading:.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 

Spelling. — Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spell- 
ing-book and  from  other  sources. 

Composition.  —  Original  compositions.  Abstracts  from 
memory.  Paraphrasing.  Letter-writing.  Correction 
of  false  syntax.     Business  forms. 

Writing-.  —  Copy-book  practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Compound  numbers,  including  all  practical  operations 
in  long,  square,  and  cubic  measures,  avoirdupois  weight. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Important  features  of  the  countries  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
Mathematical  and  physical  features  of  the  earth  as  a 
whole. 


SEVENTH   YEAR.     SECOND   HALF. 

OBSERVATION  LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Composition  and  uses  of  different  parts  of 

plants. 
Animals.  —  Varieties  of  mammals,  as  flesh-eaters,  gnaw- 
ers, cud-chewers,  etc. ;  also  of  birds,  as  climbers,  birds 
of  prey,  swimmers,  etc. ;  described  and  compared. 

LANGUAGE. 
Reading-.  —  Prescribed   reader  for  study.     Easy  sight* 
reading  daily. 


16  COURSE   OF   STUDIES 

Spelling.  —  Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spell- 
ing-book and  from  other  sources. 
Composition.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Compound  numbers,  including  metric  system  and  all 
practical  operations  in  all  the  weights  and  measures. 
Percentage.     Simple  interest. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Important  features  of  sections  of  Africa,  Australia, 
Islands  of  Pacific.  Also  State  and  section  in  which 
pupils  live.  Mathematical  and  physical  features  of 
the  earth  as  a  whole. 


EICxHTH   YEAR.     FIRST  HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Forest  trees  named  and  compared  with  refer- 
ence to  size,  stem,  bark,  leaves,  fruit,  wood. 

Minerals.  —  Teach  to  distinguish  quartz,  mica,  feldspar, 
granite,  galena,  pyrite,  halite. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 

Spelling.  —  Writing  of  words  from  spelling-book  and 
from  other  sources. 

Composition.  —  Exercises  three  times  a  week  upon 
work  indicated  for  the  seventh  year. 


FOR   GRADED   SCHOOLS.  17 

Grammar.  —  Sentence,  subject,  and  predicate.     Parts 

of  speech. 
"Writing.  —  Copy-book  practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Percentage,  including  commission  and  brokerage,  in- 
surance, taxes,  duties.     Oral  exercises  daily. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Three  exercises  a  week  upon  countries  and  sections 
of  Western  Hemisphere  by  topics. 

HISTORY. 

Connected  reading  of    American  history  up  to   the 
time  of  the  Revolutionary  War.     Recitation  by  topics. 


EIGHTH  YEAR.     SECOND  HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Plants.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued.  Grains  rec- 
ognized ;  parts  compared. 

Minerals.  —  Teach  to  distinguish  fluorite,  corundum, 
magnetite,  asbestos,  hornblende,  garnet,  tourmaline, 
talc,  serpentine,  gypsum,  calcite. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading.  —  Prescribed  reader  for  study.  Easy  sight- 
reading  daily. 


18  COURSE   OF    STUDIES 

Spelling.  —  Writing  of  words  from  spelling-book  and 
from  other  sources. 

Composition.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 

Grammar.  —  Adjective,  objective,  and  adverbial  ele- 
ments ;  kinds  and  properties  of.  noun,  pronoun,  verb, 
adjective,  adverb,  preposition,  conjunction. 

Writing.  —  Copy-book  practice. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Interest,  problems  in  interest,  discount,  notes,  par- 
tial payments,  banking.     Oral  exercises  daily. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Three  exercises  a  week  upon  countries  and  sections 
of  Eastern  Hemisphere  by  topics. 

HISTORY.    . 

Connected  reading  of  American  history  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  War  up  to  the  present 
time.     Recitation  by  topics. 


NINTH   YEAR.     FIRST  HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Physics.  —  Teach  matter,  body,  substance,  extension, 
volume,  impenetrability,  mobility,  divisibility,  poros- 
ity, compressibility,  density,  expansibility,  elasticity, 
resistance    (inertia,    friction),   velocity,   momentum, 


FOR   GRADED   SCHOOLS.  19 

energy,    effect    of    several    forces    acting    together, 
cohesion,  adhesion. 
Astronomy.  —  Form  and  motions  of  the  earth. 

Sun :   Effects,  composition,  comparative  size,  spots, 

eclipses. 

Moon :  Light,  phases,  eclipses. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading-.  —  English  history  and  works  of  standard 
authors. 

Spelling-.  —  Written  reviews  twice  a  week. 

Composition.  —  Exercises  twice  a  week  upon  work  in- 
dicated for  Seventh  Year.     Essays  monthly. 

Grammar.  —  Analysis  continued ;  words,  phrases, 
clauses,  complex  and  compound  sentences;  rules  of 
construction  taught  and  applied  in  parsing  and  in 
correction  of  sentences. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Ratio  and  proportion,  square  and  cube  root,  and  their 
application  in  mensuration  of  land,  lumber,  etc.  Oral 
exercises  daily. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

Simple  forms  of  accounts. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

General  review  once  a  week  by  topics 

HISTORY. 

Work  of  Eighth  Year  reviewed. 


20  COURSE   OF   STUDIES. 

NINTH  YEAR.     SECOND  HALF. 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 

Physics.  —  Application,  by  experiments,  of  facts  learned 
during  First  Half,  as  balance,  steelyard,  pop-gun, 
lifting-pump,  forcing-pump,  barometer. 

Astronomy. —  Flanets :  Appearance,  movements,  names, 
relative  size,  length  of  year,  moons  and  rings,  phases, 
conjunction. 

Fixed  Stars  :  Appearance,  distance,  stars  of  first  mag- 
nitude observed  and  named,  constellations  observed 
and  named. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 
Spelling. —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 
Composition.  —  Work  of  First  Half  continued. 
Grammar.  —  Parsing  and  analysis  ;  constant  application 
of  rules  of  syntax  in  writing  and  correcting. 

ARITHMETIC. 

General  review,  involving  definitions,  formulas,  and 
principles.  Practical  business  problems  and  short  proc- 
esses.    Oral  exercises  daily. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

Simple  forms  of  accounts. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

General  review  once  a  week  by  topics. 

HISTORY. 

General  topical  review  by  subjects. 


COURSE  OF  STUDIES  FOR  UNGRADED 
SCHOOLS. 


oXKo 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTE. 


The  subjects  to  be  taught  are  arranged  in  three 
groups,  each  group  covering  the  work  of  three  years. 
The  work  as  here  laid  down  is  not  intended  to  mean 
that  the  school  should  be  divided  into  three  classes  and 
that  each  class  should  take  the  subjects  indicated.  The 
outline  is  given  in  three  groups  so  as  to  indicate  in  a 
general  way  what  ground  should  be  gone  over  in  a 
given  time.  For  hints  upon  classification,  see  Classi- 
fication and  Teaching  of  Ungraded  Schools,  page  309. 


FIRST  PERIOD  (THREE  YEARS). 

Reading  and  Spelling. 

Reading  from  blackboard,  chart,  and  several  First 
and  Second  readers.  At  end  of  Period  to  be  able 
to  read  at  sight  and  with  good  expression  any  ordinary 
Second  reader.  Vocal  drill.  Use  of  words  in  original 
sentences.  Oral  and  written  spelling  of  all  common 
words  of  readers. 


22  COURSE   OF   STUDIES 

Writing-. 

Short,  easy  words  in  the  beginning,  and  sentences 
as  soon  as  possible.  Use  ruled  or  spaced  lines.  During 
first  half  of  Period,  provide  copies ;  during  last  half, 
let  the  pupils  write  without  copies.  Practise  with  and 
without  copy  upon  the  following  letters  in  the  order 
given :  — 

^j        t^j        Mlj        ^         ^^^        <^j        -^^y        <^j        ^j         «</         ^j         2f^/ 

^  /^  4.4  o<  <:>i  oc  cf:s; 

Arithmetic. 

Accurate  and  rapid  combinations  and  separations  up 
to  100,  carrying  on  the  four  fundamental  rules  together. 
Use  objects  up  to  20.  Children  to  make  their  own 
tables.  Common  store  problems  to  be  practised  upon, 
using  ordinary  weights  and  measures.  Teach  halves, 
fourths,  eighths,  also  pointing  off  for  dollars,  cents,  and 
mills. 

Language. 

Daily  practice  in  one  or  more  of  the  following  exer- 
cises :  copying  sentences  from  cards  or  blackboard ; 
talking  and  writing  after  information  and  object  les- 
sons ;  oral  and  written  abstracts  after  reading ;  writing 
gems  from  memory  ;  literal  descriptions  of,  and  imagi- 
nary stories  from,  pictures ;  writing  of  letters. 


FOR   UNGRADED   SCHOOLS.  23 

Observation  Lessons. 

At  least  one  lesson  of  fifteen  minutes  daily  upon 
some  one  of  the  following  subjects :  form,  distance, 
direction,  color,  human  body,  plants,  animals,  rocks. 

Home  geography  and  plan-drawing. 

Miscellaneous. 

Drawing  of  leaves  and  other  objects.  Copying  from 
drawing-cards. 

Sinning  by  rote  simple  songs. 

Memorizing  gems,  from  five  to  ten  lines  weekly. 

Information  lessons. 


SECOND  PERIOD  (THREE  YEARS). 
Reading-. 

Several  third  and  fourth  readers.  Frequent  practice 
in  sight-reading.  Vocal  drill.  New  words  in  original 
sentences. 

Spellingr. 

Chiefly  written.  Half  of  the  time  from  spelling- 
book,   other   half   from    readers,   geographies,   written 

papers,  etc. 

Writing. 

Practice  upon  single  letters  continued  in  following 
order : — 

4  ^  (^  (^.  ^  (^^  <G  ^  ^  ^ 


24  COURSE   OF    STUDIES 

Three  copy-books  with  pen  and  ink.     Penmanship  to 
be  considered  in  language  and  other  written  exercises. 

Arithmetic. 

Four  fundamental  rules  to  1000,  and  afterwards  to 
higher  numbers ;  also  tenths,  hundredths,  and  thou- 
sandths. Applications  in  United  States  money,  weights, 
and  measures.  Fractions,  such  as  are  involved  in  ordi- 
nary business,  adding,  subtracting,  multipl3dng,  and 
dividing.  Daily  exercises  in  mental  problems.  Short 
processes  in  practical  problems. 

Geography. 

Home  geography  reviewed.  Plan-drawing  of  neigh- 
borhood. General  study  of  earth  and  continents  from 
globe.  United  States,  British  Empire,  France,  Russia, 
Germany,  Spain,  Mexico,  New  England  States,  Massa- 
chusetts. Study  and  recite  by  topics.  Map-drawing. 
Voyages  and  travels. 

Language. 

Same  kind  of  exercises  as  given  in  First  Period,  only 
more  complex.     Correction  of  false  syntax. 

Observation  Lessons. 

From  May  to  November :  natural  history,  plants,  trees, 
flowers.  From  November  to  May :  rocks  and  animals ; 
common  phenomena :  dew,  rain,  snow,  etc. 

Miscellaneous. 

In  DRAWING,  SINGING,  MEMORY  LESSONS,  INFORMA- 
TION   LESSONS,     MORALS,     and    MANNERS,    Selcct    from 

outlines  given  in  graded  course. 


FOR    UNGRADED   SCHOOLS.  26 

THIRD  PERIOD.     (THREE  YEARS.) 

Reading. 

Several  advanced  Fourth  and  Fifth  readers  or  their 
equivalent.  Easy  sight-reading  of  histories  and  geo- 
graphical readers.  Vocal  drill.  Use  of  new  and  diffi- 
cult words  in  sentences.  Definitions  and  synonyms. 
Use  of  dictionary  in  defining  and  pronouncing. 

SpeUing. 

Writing  of  words  and  sentences  from  spelling-book. 
Half  the  time  should  be  given  to  words  selected  from 
the  reader,  written  examinations  and  other  papers. 

Writing-. 

Three  copy-books.  Blank  books  for  practice  and  for 
copying  topics  and  pieces  of  poetry.  All  written  work 
to  be  carefully  written. 

Arithmetic. 

Fractions,  common  and  decimal.  Weights  and  meas- 
ures. Mensuration.  Percentage,  including  interest, 
insurance,  profit  and  loss,  discount  and  all  ordinary 
business  problems.  Mental  work  daily,  with  explana- 
tions.    Book-keeping  in  simple  forms  of  accounts. 

Lianguage  and  Grammar. 

Language  work  of  previous  Periods  continued.  Part 
of  the  time  during  latter  half  of  Period  to  be  given  to 
the  study  of  grammar  and  analysis.  Correction  of  false 
syntax,  with  rules  for  correction.     Composition-writing. 


26  COURSE   OF    STUDIES. 

Observation  Lessons. 

Lessons  of  Second  Period  continued,  one  hour  a 
week.     Also  elementary  lessons  in  physics. 

Geography. 

Effects  of  motions  of  the  earth.  Latitude,  longitude, 
climate,  zones,  winds  (kinds  and  cause).  Formation 
of  land  surface.  Topical  study  and  map-drawing  of 
countries  not  previously  studied.  Latter  part  of  period 
given  to  reviews.     Books  of  travel  to  be  read. 

History. 

Easy  books  of  history  and  biography  to  be  read  at 
sight  and  talked  about.  Topical  study  with  regular 
text-book  during  latter  part  of  period. 

Miscellaneous. 

In  DRAWING,  SINGING,  MEMORY  LESSONS,  PHYSIOL- 
OGY and  HYGIENE,  and  information  lessons,  select 
from  work  given  in  Part  IL 


Part  II. 
METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 


o>Ko 


BIPORTANCE   OF   METHOD. 

The  importance  of  method  in  all  kinds  of  skilled  work 
has  always  and  everywhere  been  recognized.  The  artist 
and  the  skilled  artisan  know  that  patient  study  and  labor 
are  necessary  to  the  best  success,  and  they  are  willing 
to  spend  years  in  acquiring  their  art.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  some  kinds  of  work,  like  shovelling  sand 
or  turning  a  grindstone,  which  place  method  in  a  rela- 
tively subordinate  position.  On  which  side  shall  we  place 
teachinor  —  on  the  side  of  skilled  or  unskilled  work?  Is 
teaching  an  art  which  requires  thought,  purpose,  and 
method,  or  does  it  belong  to  that  other  kind  of  work 
which  requires  little  or  no  method  ? 

In  determining  the  place  and  character  of  teaching, 
we  should  not  regard  instruction  as  the  whole  of  educa- 
tion, nor  should  we  be  misled  by  the  practice  of  some 
teachers  whose  teaching  consists  of  assigning  and  hear- 
ing lessons  from  a  book.  We  should  tliink  of  the 
teacher  not  simply  as  a  purveyor  of  facts,  but  as  a 
moulder  of  the  human  mind.  If  we  think  of  him  in 
this  way,  his  work   is  exalted    in  our  estimation    and 


28  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

placed  where  it  should  be  —  alongside  of  that  other 
work  whose  object  is  the  cure  of  disease  and  the  promo- 
tion of  bodily  health.  Thus  the  work  of  the  teacher, 
like  that  of  the  physician,  becomes  a  profession  in  which 
there  are  clearly  defined  methods  based  upon  laws  and 
principles. 

But  why,  it  may  be  asked,  should  there  be  any  more 
care  and  solicitude  in  feeding  and  training  the  mind 
than  in  feeding  and  training  the  body  ?  For  very  obvious 
reasons.  In  the  first  place,  however  important  it  is  to 
have  a  sound  body,  it  is  still  more  important  to  have  a 
sound  mind.  Moreover,  it  is  far  easier  to  keep  the  body 
in  health  and  vigor  than  to  build  up  the  mind  com- 
pletely, and  to  keep  it  in  a  condition  to  do  all  that  it  is 
capable  of  doing.  While  the  laws  of  both  body  and 
mind  are  fixed  and  constant  in  their  operation,  the  laws 
of  the  mind  are  more  obscure  and  more  difficult  to  un- 
derstand than  are  those  of  the  body.  Unlike  the  body, 
the  mind  does  not  hang  out  its  danger-signals  of  aches 
and  distortions  when  food  of  an  improper  kind  is  given 
or  when  there  is  improper  training.  It  is  for  this  reason, 
and  also  because  they  are  liidden  from  sight,  that  weak- 
ness and  deformity  of  the  mind  are  not  guarded  against 
as  are  weakness  and  deformity  of  the  body,  although  the 
former  are  quite  as  common  as  the  latter  and  far 
more  deplorable.  Repugnance  to  study,  want  of  appli- 
cation, idleness,  defective  observation  and  memory,  unre- 
liable judgment  and  reasoning,  and  moral  turpitude,  all 
may  result,  in  part  at  least,  from  wrong  methods  or  no 
methods  of  teaching  and  affect  the  whole  future  life  of 
the  boy  or  girl.  The  best  safeguard  against  these  de- 
fects  is   a  good   school,  taught  by  a   teacher  who  un- 


OBJECTS   OF   EDUCATION.  29 

derstands  and  perseveringly  follows  right  methods  of 
teaching.  How  shall  we  determine  what  methods  are 
right  and  what  methods  are  wrong? 


OBJECTS  OF  EDUCATION. 

To  know  the  means  of  doing  anything,  it  is  all  im- 
portant that  we  should  have  a  clear  idea  of  what  we 
desire  to  accomplish.  One  of  the  chief  causes  of  de- 
fective methods  of  teaching  is  want  of  purpose  on  the 
part  of  teachers.  Without  purpose  there  can  be  no 
definite  plan,  and  without  plan  there  will  be  mistakes 
and  wasted  energy.  Our  first  question  should  Ij^,  there- 
fore. What  is  the  end  or  use  of  education  ?  "  To  pre- 
pare us  for  complete  living,"  Spencer  says,  "is  the 
function  of  education."  No  one  is  likely  to  find  fault 
with  such  a  statement,  especially  if  the  highest  and 
best  service  to  others  is  regarded  as  an  essential  ele- 
ment of  complete  living.  Assuming  this  to  be  the  end 
of  education,  let  us  see  what  objects  of  school  educa- 
tion are  to  be  sought  by  the  teacher. 

The  conditions  of  the  highest  and  best  service  to 
others  are  a  sound  body  and  a  well-informed  mind. 
Bodily  health  should  be  promoted  both  directly  and 
indirectly  in  the  school.  Physical  exercises  of  the  right 
kind  and  amount  should  be  practised,  habits  of  regu- 
larity should  be  formed,  and  the  business  of  the  school 
should  be  so  regulated  as  to  prevent  over-work  and 
over-worry  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  Moreover,  thor- 
ough instruction  should  be  given  in  physiology  and 
hygiene,  that  the  pupils  may  know  the  importance  of 


30  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

keeping  the  body  in  health  and  that  they  may  know 
how  it  can  be  done. 

The  second  condition  of  the  highest  and  best  ser- 
vice to  others,  is  a  well-informed  mind.  What  is 
meant  by  a  "well-informed  mind"?  If  it  is  simply 
a  mind  possessed  of  knowledge  or  facts,  there  would 
be  little  need  of  carrying  school  studies  beyond  the 
rudiments,  for  books  and  lectures  could  do  the  rest. 
Or,  if  it  were  thought  best  to  carry  on  such  an  educa- 
tion in  the  schools,  books  could  be  placed  before  the 
children  to  be  memorized  and  recited,  —  a  practice  which 
can  hardly  be  called  teaching,  although  it  passes  for 
such  in  some  schools  at  the  present  day.  The  posses- 
sion of  facts,  even  though  they  are  gained  in  this  way, 
may  be  useful ;  but  unless  more  has  been  done  for  the 
child  than  this,  or  rather  unless  he  has  done  more  for 
himself  than  this,  he  cannot  be  said  to  be  properly  edu- 
cated. The  life  which  awaits  him  as  a  worker  in  some 
useful  occupation,  as  a  citizen  and  as  a  man,  needs  a 
well-developed  mind,  which  he  does  not  possess.  His 
active  powers,  both  of  intellect  and  will,  have  not  been 
strengthened  by  exercise.  He  has  not  formed  the  habit 
of  concentration  or  prolonged  attention ;  his  powers  of 
observation  and  of  reasoning  are  defective  ;  what  he 
has  acquired  does  not  lie  in  his  mind  in  an  orderly  way 
so  as  to  be  ready  for  use ;  and  most  of  all,  his  moral 
nature  has  not  been  so  trained  as  to  enable  him  to  con- 
trol his  acts,  both  in  refraining  from  evil  and  in  doing 
good  to  others. 

1.  The  first  object  of  education,  so  far  as  the  mind 
is  concerned,  is  knowledge.  What  is  knowledge  ?  If  a 
rubber  ball  is  placed  before  a  child,  certain  ideas  are 


OBJECTS   OP  EDUCATION.  31 

formed  in  his  mind,  in  agreement  or  disagreement  with 
ideas  previously  formed.  Ideas  of  color,  form,  hard- 
ness, etc.,  are  thus  formed ;  and  if  names  are  applied 
to  them,  he  says  that  the  ball  is  white,  round,  and 
hard.  This  constitutes  his  knowledge  o±  the  ball.  If 
the  child  had  never  seen  a  ball,  or  if  he  had  never  seen 
anything  white  or  felt  anything  round  or  hard,  no 
ideas  of  w'hiteness  or  roundness  or  hardness  could  have 
been  formed  in  his  mind  by  simply  telling  him  that 
the  ball  was  white  and  round  and  hard. 

Words,  then,  are  not  knowledge,  nor  do  they  convey 
knowledge  of  material  things  to  any  one,  unless  the 
words  are  associated  with  ideas  that  have  been  previ- 
ously formed  by  the  aid  of  the  senses.  The  same  prin- 
ciple is  true  of  acts  of  the  mind,  which  we  may  also  call 
objects  of  thought.  If,  for  example,  we  say  "  we  form 
judgments,"  no  idea  of  that  act  would  be  formed  by  any 
one  who  has  not  observed  such  an  act  in  himself.  In 
seeking  knowledge,  therefore,  and  in  instructing  others, 
we  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  knowl- 
edge can  be  gained  from  words  only  or  that  memoriz- 
ing the  product  of  other  people's  thinking  is  thinking 
itself.  To  lead  pupils  to  think  for  themselves  and  to 
acquire  knowledge,  objects  of  thought  should  be  so 
presented  as  to  lead  them  to  know  the  objects  them- 
selves by  recognizing  their  resemblances  and  differences 
and  by  perceiving  the  relations  which  their  parts  have 
to  one  another. 

2.  The  amount  of  knowledge  which  the  young  grad- 
uate of  the  school  or  college  has  is  very  small.  He 
may  be  able  to  tell  much  of  what  others  know,  and  this 
may  be  of  use  to  him,  but  what  he  really  has  as  the 


32  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

result  of  his  own  thinking,  or  what  he  has  that  will 
stay  by  him  for  any  length  of  time,  is  comparatively 
little.  What  he  most  relies  upon  for  assistance  in  the 
duties  of  life  is  his  well  trained  powers  of  mind.  If 
his  memory  only  is  trained,  he  has  but  little  to  aid  him  ; 
but  if  his  powers  of  observation,  attention,  judgment, 
and  reasoning  have  been  strengthened  by  orderly  ex- 
ercise, he  has  in  his  developed  powers  constant  assist- 
ance in  whatever  he  undertakes.  Indeed,  the  difference 
between  an  educated  and  an  uneducated  person  is  seen 
more  in  the  difference  of  mental  development  than  in 
the  difference  pf  amount  of  knowledge  possessed. 

3.  But  the  powers  of  the  mind  to  be  developed  in- 
clude the  sensibilities  and  will  as  well  as  the  powers 
of  the  intellect.  The  usefulness  of  a  man,  for  which 
his  early  education  prepares  him,  depends  quite  as  much 
upon  his  desires  and  purposes  as  upon  the  thouglit  em- 
ployed in  carrying  them  into  effect.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  that  there  be  a  liarraonious  development  of 
all  the  powers  of  the  child  if  he  is  to  be  truly  edu- 
cated. 

To  attain  these  objects  of  education,  the  wise  teacher 
acquaints  himself  with  the  principles  of  mental  growth 
and  development  which  have  been  deduced  from  much 
observation  and  experience,  and  which  will  serve  as  a 
guide  for  him  in  his  difficult  work. 

A  fcAv  general  principles  of  teaching  are  liere  given 
in  tlie  liope  that  they  may  suggest  to  young  teachers 
the  im})ortance  of  having  a  well  defined  purpose  in  all 
their  methods.  They  may  also  serve  to  explain  the 
reason  for  some  of  tlie  methods  recommended  in  the 
following  pages. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES.  33 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

1.  Edncation  aims  to  develop  all  the  powers  of  the  child,— 
physical,  iutellectuul,  moral,  and  spiritual. 

Complete  living  calls  for  all  the  assistance  which 
every  power  of  mind  and  body  is  capable  of  giving. 
The  efficiency  of  each  power  depends  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  all,  because  they  are  closely  connected  and 
dependent  upon  one  another.  The  activity  of  willing 
depends  upon  feeling,  and  feeling  depends  upon  know- 
ing. Moreover,  the  developed  mind  needs  the  devel- 
oped body  through  which  to  act. 

2.  The  powers  of  mind  and  body  are  strengthened  and  devel- 
oped by  exercise. 

Weakness  is  the  result  of  inaction,  —  a  fact  no  less  true 
of  the  mind  than  of  the  body.  Teachers  do  not  recog- 
nize this  important  principle  when  they  do  for  their 
pupils  what  the  pupils  can  do  for  themselves.  Telling 
is  not  teaching,  and  helping  a  pupil  over  every  obsta- 
cle is  no  kindness  to  him.  Self-development  and  self- 
instruction  are  the  ends  of  teaching  which  is  to  lead  the 
pupil  to  gain  new  knowledge  through  his  own  efforts. 
It  is  by  these  efforts  that  his  faculties  become  strong 
and  ready  to  act  in  any  emergency. 

The  cultivation  of  each  faculty  of  the  mind  strength- 
ens that  faculty  and  all  the  rest,  and  the  neglect  of  any 
faculty  tends  to  lessen  the  efficiency  of  all.  Some  exer- 
cise of  the  feelings  and  will  is  necessary  to  thought, 
while  excessive  indulgence  of  the  feelings  prevents  clear 
and  effective  thinking. 


34  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

3.  Exercise  of  the  mental  faculties   should  be  judicious  aud 
harmonious. 

The  subjects  and  methods  of  teaching  should  be 
progressive,  and  always  adapted  to  the  strength  and 
capacity  of  the  learner.  Too  much  exercise  may  be  as 
harmful  as  too  little,  and  a  wrong  kind  of  development 
may  do  incalculable  injury  by  neglecting  some  facul- 
ties which  need  to  be  exercised,  and  by  exercising  other 
faculties  which  are  not  ready  for  action.  Again,  modes 
of  mental  action  differ  greatly,  and  different  treatment 
is  needed  for  the  proper  development  of  each  faculty. 

4.  The  natural  development  and  capabilities  of  the  mind  are 
the  guides  to  teaching. 

The  teacher  does  not  develop  the  minds  of  his  pupils, 
nor  does  he  determine  the  order  of  their  development. 
Nature  is  the  real  educator,  of  whom  he  is  only  an  as- 
sistant, and  to  whom,  in  general  and  in  particular,  he 
constantly  looks  for  guidance.  By  observation  and 
study,  the  teacher  becomes  acquainted  with  the  laws  of 
mental  growth  and  development,  and  is  governed  by 
them  in  choosing  objects  of  knowledge,  and  in  present- 
ing these  to  his  pupils. 

5.  The  mental  powers  are  most  vigorous  when  they  are  exer- 
cised voluntarily. 

As  a  rule,  we  can  do  those  things  best  which  we  most 
desire  to  do,  and  we  generally  desire  to  do  that  which 
is  most  pleasing  to  us.  The  degree  of  effort  exerted  is 
also  measured  by  our  willingness  to  do  certain  work,  or 
to  accomplish  certain  results.  If  this  is  true,  it  is 
plainly  the  duty  of  teachers  to  conduct  their  teaching 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES.  35 

in  such  a  way  as  to  make  study  pleasurable  and  volun- 
tary. The  work  done  by  pupils  need  not  necessarily  be 
easy  to  be  pleasurable.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
children  enjoy  any  work  because  it  is  easy.  Food  and 
physical  exercise  are  pleasurable  to  the  healthy  body, 
l)ut  they  are  no  more  so  than  truth  and  mental  exercise 
are  to  the  healthy  mind,  provided  the  truth  and  exercise 
be  of  the  right  kind.  Want  of  interest  in  school  and 
aversion  to  study  are  frequently  due  to  the  fact  that 
wrong  subjects  are  taught  or  that  a  wrong  kind  of  men- 
tal exercise  is  demanded. 

Sometimes  teachers  believe  it  to  be  necessary  to  give 
to  pupils  extra  inducements  to  study  or  to  attend  to  the 
work  in  hand,  such  as  fear  of  punishment,  loss  of 
privilege,  hope  of  reward,  desire  for  a  high  rank  or 
m.ark.  Pupils  may  be  made  to  work  harder  for  a  time 
under  such  stimulants,  but  like  artificial  stimulants  of 
the  body,  their  effects  are  temporary  and  harmful. 
There  is  in  the  right  kind  of  mental  exercise  a  positive 
enjoyment  which  acts  as  an  incentive  to  increased 
effort.  It  may  be  impossible  with  many  requirements 
and  a  large  number  of  pupils,  to  reach  all  in  the  right 
way ;  but  a  constant  effort  should  be  made  by  the 
teacher  to  make  the  work  of  every  pupil  voluntary  and 
pleasurable. 

0.  All  mental  acts  depend  for  their  efRciency  upon  the  power 
of  attention,  which  should  be  assiduously  cultivated  from  the 
beginning. 

The  great  value  of  attention  and  concentration  of 
mind  is  unquestioned  by  any  one.  The  difference  be- 
tween a  disciplined  and  an  undisciplined  mind  is  shown 


36  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

by  the  difference  in  the  degree  of  attention  of  which  it 
is  capable.  Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  to  learn 
to  give  attention  is  all  there  is  of  education. 

To  cultivate  the  power  of  attention,  the  teacher 
should  see  that  the  mind  of  the  pupil  is  not  bent  upon 
one  subject  too  long ;  that  there  are  few  diverting 
influences,  at  least  until  the  habit  of  voluntary  atten- 
tion is  fixed;  that  the  objects  of  attention  are  suited 
to  the  capabilities  of  the  pupil ;  and  that  the  illustra- 
tions, anecdotes,  and  information  are  such  as  will  arouse 
interest  or  an  expectant  curiosity,  and  not  divert  the 
attention  from  the  subject  in  hand. 

7.  Educatiou  consists  largely  in  the  formation  of  Iiabits. 

The  importance  of  forming  correct  habits  in  child- 
hood cannot  be  overestimated ;  indeed,  the  principal 
work  of  all  who  have  the  care  of  the  young  is  in  this 
direction.  A  young  person  who  enters  upon  the  duties 
of  life  with  correct  habits  of  thought  and  action  can  be 
said  to  be  well  educated.  Among  the  best  habits  to  be 
formed  in  school  are  those  of  industry,  attention,  obser- 
vation, correct  judgment,  desiring  to  do  good  to  others, 
doing  good  to  others. 

These  and  all  habits  are  formed  by  many  repetitions 
of  the  same  act,  until  there  are  both  inclination  to  act 
and  facility  in  acting.  The  best  way,  therefore,  to  form 
good  habits  or  to  correct  bad  ones,  is  to  lead  the  child 
to  do  what  we  desire  him  to  do,  in  such  a  way  as  to  give 
him  pleasure,  and  with  such  frequency  as  to  render  the 
act  easy  to  him. 


GENERAL    nUNCIPLES.  37 

8.  The  perceptive  powers  should  be  most  exercised  in  child- 
hood. 

Although  the  powers  of  the  mind  are  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  active  in  all  periods  of  life,  it  is  a  matter  of 
common  observation,  that  during  childhood  the  observ- 
ing powers  are  more  active  and  the  reflective  powers 
less  active  than  at  a  later  period.  Facts  and  phenomena 
of  the  external  world  are  to  be  known  primarily  through 
the  senses.  Objects  or  representations  of  objects  should 
be  constantly  presented,  so  as  to  affect  the  mind  and  to 
lead  it  to  know  new  truth.  Resemblances  and  con- 
trasts should  be  observed,  aud  the  judgments  formed 
should  be  correctly  expressed. 

9.  Following  the  order  of  natui'al  deyelopment,  memory  and 
imagination  should  be  cultivated  during  the  entire  course. 

The  qualities  of  a  good  memory  are,  retentiveness,  by 
which  ideas  are  retained  in  the  mind ;  and  readiness,  by 
which  the  ideas  are  reproduced  when  needed.  These 
qualities  may  be  gained  by  (1)  observing  distinctly, 
attentively,  and  accurately,  and  (2)  repeating  the  judg- 
ments formed  in  the  order  of  observation  and  with  the 
strictest  accuracy.  Memory  depends  upon  association 
of  ideas  and  attention.  Thoughts  of  visible  things  are 
held  more  strongly  than  those  of  other  things.  Models, 
diagrams,  and  illustrations  are  therefore  helpful.  The 
principal  laws  of  association  are,  resemblance ;  conti- 
guity in  time  or  place ;  cause  and  effect.  The  last- 
named  law  is  very  important,  and  should  be  emphasized 
in  the  higher  grades. 

The  power  of  imagination  needs  most  careful  guid- 
ance so  that  the  images  formed  may  be  pure  and  re 


38  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

fined.  For  the  purpose  of  having  good  materials  to 
draw  from,  the  child  should  come  in  constant  contact 
with  objects  of  beauty,  beautiful  pictures,  refined  con- 
duct, and  poetical  language.  The  imagination  may  be 
exercised  by  practice  in  writing  and  drawing,  in  observ- 
ing beautiful  objects  and  pictures,  and  in  listening  to  or 
reading  good  imaginative  stories  or  poems.  Simple 
imagination,  or  the  power  of  combining  thoughts  of 
parts  of  different  wholes  so  as  to  make  a  new  whole, 
may  be  exercised  in  the  primary  school.  Invention 
seeks  to  discover  new  truths,  and  should  be  exercised 
in  the  higher  grades. 

10.    Elementary  instruction  should  proceed  from  the  known  to 
the  unknown. 

Very  much  is  involved  in  this  generally  accepted  but 
much  abused  principle.  In  the  primary  school,  or 
while  the  perceptive  faculties  are  most  active,  the 
child's  knowledge  is  gained  through  the  senses,  passing 
from  the  whole  to  its  parts  or  properties,  from  ideas 
to  words,  and  from  thoughts  to  sentences.  Later,  the 
child's  knowledge  of  individual  objects  is  extended  to 
a  class,  facts  are  formulated  into  principles,  and  causes 
are  inferred  from  known  effects.  To  follow  this  order 
fully  will  take  much  time  and  patience,  and  more  will 
seem  to  be  accomplished  sometimes  by  following  a  re- 
verse order  or  by  leaving  out  the  first  steps ;  as  very 
much  more  would  seem  to  be  accomplished  by  putting 
all  of  a  given  amount  of  effort  into  a  building  and 
neglecting  the  unseen  foundation. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  39 

11.  General  forms  of  truth  are  derived  from  particulars. 

Rules,  definitions,  and  principles  should  not  be  given 
pupils  to  be  memorized  without  first  being  taught  in 
accordance  with  the  principle  that  generals  are  derived 
from  particulars.  The  definition  of  a  noun,  for  example, 
would  be  taught  by  presenting  many  nouns  in  sen- 
tences and  by  having  the  pupils  discover  one  or  more 
common  characteristics  of  the  given  nouns.  The  state- 
ment formed  by  the  pupils  may  then  be  corrected  in 
respect  to  form  of  expression  and  memorized.  . 

Rules  of  arithmetic  should  be  taught  by  having  pupils 
discover  the  steps  of  a  given  process,  and  subsequently 
give  a  general  statement  containing  the  steps  taken  in 
their  proper  order.  Rules  of  grammar  are  general 
principles  which  are  derived  from  the  observation  of 
many  examples. 

12.  A  proper  cultivation  of  the  feelings  tends  to  promote 
happiness,  to  stimulate  thought,  and  to  provide  good  mo- 
tives of  action. 

The  conduct  of  little  children  is  guided  more  by 
feeling  than  by  an  intellectual  perception-  of  right. 
Cultivation  of  the  feelings  consists  of  (1)  repressing 
those  emotions  which  are  injurious,  as  anger,  hatred, 
envy,  vanity,  pride,  and  all  forms  of  excitement  which 
hinder  clear  thinking  and  rational  willing;  and  (2) 
stimulating  the  higher  emotions,  as  love  of  the  beauti- 
ful, reverence,  pity,  respect,  sympathy,  and  love  of 
home,  companions,  and  study.  The  higher  feelings  are 
promoted  more  by  association  and  the  influence  of  ex- 
ample than  by  direct  instruction. 

Among  the  motives  to  be  encouraged  in  school  in 


40  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

the  order  of  merit  from  lower  to  higher  are,  obedi- 
ence to  authority,  respect  for  the  opinions  of  school- 
mates, respect  for  the  opinions  of  the  teacher,  a  sense 
of  right  and  duty,  and  a  desire  to  serve  others  for  their 
sake. 

13.    Self-control  belongs  primarily  to  the  will,  bnt  is  applied 
to  the  thoughts,  feelings,  and  actions. 

There  are  all  stages  of  self-control,  depending  upon 
the  motive  involved,  from  that  which  has  in  it  the 
gratification  of  sense  to  that  in  which  the  welfare  and 
happiness  of  others  are  involved.  The  faults  of  the 
will  which  sometimes  result  from  improper  training  are 
indolence,  irresolution,  impulsiveness,  and  obstinacy. 
With  as  few  rewards  and  punishments  as  possible,  by 
gradually  widening  the  circle  of  the  child's  freedom, 
and  by  constantly  appealing  to  his  honor  and  self-re- 
spect, the  wise  teacher  leads  his  pupils  to  control  them- 
selves in  forming  habits  of  choosing  wisely,  firmly,  and 
quickly  between  two  courses  of  action,  of  persevering 
in  whatever  is  undertaken,  and  of  treating  others  as 
they  themselves  would  be  treated. 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS. 
Graded  and  Ungraded  Schools. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  danger  of  misdirected  effort,  it 
is  always  well  for  teachers  to  know  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  the  circumstances  in  which  they  find 
themselves  placed.    There  is  no  question  that  the  graded 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS.  41 

school,  all  things  considered,  has  a  great  advantage  over 
the  ungraded  school;  and  yet  there  are  some  dangers  of 
the  graded  system  which  teachers  should  understand  and 
carefully  avoid.  There  is  danger,  unless  care  is  taken,  of 
turning  pupils  out  after  the  same  pattern,  of  repressing 
their  originality  and  individuality,  and  of  abusing  compe- 
tition. It  is  impossible,  of  course,  to  consider  the  needs 
and  characteristics  of  each  pupil  of  a  large  school,  and 
yet  it  is  not  necessary,  even  in  a  large  school,  to  oblige 
every  pupil  to  do  the  same  work  in  the  same  way  as  every 
other  pupil;  neither  is  it  necessary  or  wise  to  stimulate 
the  exertions  of  pupils  by  marking  and  ranking.  The 
school  exists  for  the  pupil,  and  not  the  pupil  for  the 
school.  System  and  order  are  good,  but  they  should 
always  have  in  view  the  common  good,  and  interfere 
with  the  individual  rights  of  pupils  as  little  as  possible. 
Some  pupils  are  physically  strong,  some  are  weak ;  the 
intellects  of  some  pupils  are  bright,  of  others  dull ; 
some  pupils  have  much  outside  work  to  do,  others  have 
none.  It  is  necessary,  so  far  as  possible,  to  fit  the  re- 
quirements of  the  school  to  these  various  conditions. 
There  is  little  danger  of  pupils  taking  advantage  of  a 
difference  of  requirements  or  privileges,  provided  the 
teacher  is  uniformly  just  in  his  dealings  with  them,  and 
provided  the  teaching  is  what  it  should  be. 

There  is  another  danger  in  graded  schools  scarcely 
less  imminent  than  those  which  have  been  named,  and 
that  is  the  danger  of  not  allowing  time  and  opportunity 
for  uninterrupted  study  and  independent  thinking,  A 
large  class  of  forty  or  fifty  pupils  often  spends  five-sixths 
of  the  school  time  in  recitation,  and  the  little  time  left 
for   study  is   frequently   interrupted   by   explanations 


42  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

from  the  teacher ;  so  that  the  pupils  get  scarcely  more 
than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time  for  uninterrupted  and 
independent  study.  The  remedy  in  part  lies  in  a  divis- 
ion of  the  class  into  two  sections  in  some  of  the  studies, 
BO  as  to  allow  one  section  to  study  while  the  other  is 
reciting. 

The  disadvantages  of  ungraded  schools  are  too  ap- 
parent to  need  mention  here.  The  danger  is,  however, 
that  the  disadvantages  will  be  unduly  magnified  in  the 
minds  of  teachers  of  those  schools.  It  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  the  pupils  of  ungraded  schools  can  be  as 
carefully  trained,  or  that  they  can  have  the  same  incen- 
tives to  study  as  pupils  of  graded  schools,  and  yet  it  is 
wrong  to  assume  that  good  principles  of  teaching  can- 
not be  applied  in  ungraded  schools,  and  that  the  pupils 
of  such  schools  must  necessarily  have  little  interest  in 
their  studies.  The  want  of  time  so  often  spoken  of  as 
an  excuse  for  poor  teaching  or  no  teaching,  is  obviated 
to  some  extent  by  care  in  classification,  and  by  allowing 
the  older  pupils  to  recite  but  two  or  three  times  a  week 
in  some  studies.  These  and  other  points  will  be  spoken 
of  more  at  length  under  the  head  of  Classification. 

Purpose  and  Plan. 

The  teacher  who  wishes  to  succeed,  and  who  does  not 
wish  to  waste  his  strength,  must  have  a  purpose  in  all 
that  he  does,  and  a  distinct  and  definite  plan  of  action, 
both  in  general  and  in  particular.  Preparation  for  all 
recitations  that  need  it  should  be  made  in  providing 
means  of  teaching  and  illustration,  in  laying  out  the 
next  day's  lessons,  and  in  giving  supplementary  infor- 
mation. 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS.  43 

The  Recitation. 

The  uses  of  the  recitation  are  various,  depending 
upon  the  subject  and  the  age  of  the  pupils.  The  prin- 
cipal uses  are  (1)  to  discipline  the  mind,  (2)  to  encour- 
age right  methods  of  study,  (3)  to  awaken  interest  in 
the  subject,  (4)  to  impart  information.  It  is  evident 
that  these  objects,  or  any  one  of  them,  cannot  be  gained 
to  the  fullest  extent  by  a  simple  examination  of  pupils 
to  ascertain  what  they  have  learned,  especially  if  the 
examination  is  conducted  by  the  question  and  answer 
method,  and  seeks  to  bring  out  only  what  the  pupils 
have  learned  from  a  text-book.  Neither  are  the  best 
objects  of  the  recitation  gained  by  what  may  be  called 
the  "  pouring  in  "  or  lecture  method.  Examination  and 
talking  are  useful  as  a  means  of  encouraging  study  and 
of  giving  information ;  but  something  more  is  needed 
to  gain  the  most  important  objects  of  the  recitation. 

Teaching.  —  The  active  faculties  of  pupils  should  be 
exercised,  and  true  ideas  of  the  different  subjects  should 
be  awakened.  These  ends  can  only  be  accomplished 
by  teaching,  and  by  teaching  is  meant  the  presenting  of 
objects  as  the  occasions  of  thought  and  of  knowledge. 
Every  new  subject,  and  every  new  phase  of  a  subject, 
should  be  taught- by  leading  the  pupils  to  think,  and  to 
discover  the  facts  foj;  themselves.  It  takes  much  time 
and  patience  to  teach  in  fhis  way,  and  there  is  often 
great  temptation  for  a  teacher  to  tell  the  facts  instead, 
or  to  present  tliQ^  words  of  the  book  to  be  learned.  The 
teaching  of  a  subject  may  occupy  an  entire  recitation, 
as  when  a  difficult  subject  is  taken  up ;  or  it  may  be 
interspersed  with  other  parts  of  the  recitation,  as  when 


44  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

some  part  of  a  lesson  is  not  quite  clear  to  the  pupils ; 
or  it  may  be  done  at  the  close  of  a  regular  recitation  in 
prej^aration  of  a  new  lesson  which  is  given  out  for 
study. 

Brill.  —  When  the  knowledge  of  a  fact  or  principle 
is  gained,  it  is  necessary  to  fix  it  in  the  mind  by  much 
repetition.  This  is  called  drill,  and  may  occur  both  in 
study  and  in  recitation.  Care  should  be  taken  in  drill- 
ing, as  in  teaching,  that  all  the  pupils  are  actively  think- 
ing of  the  subject  in  hand,  and  that  there  is  no  obscurity 
of  mind  or  dependence  upon  others.  Answering  in 
concert,  therefore,  is  to  be  largely  avoided.  Prompt  and 
complete  answers  to  all  questions  should  be  given  by 
individual  pupils,  the  teacher  seeing  to  it  that  the 
pupils,  and  not  he,  do  most  of  the  talking.  By  con- 
stant change  of  method,  by  arousing  the  curiosity  of 
the  pupils,  and  by  skilful  questioning,  the  attention  of 
every  pupil  is  secured. 

Supplementary  Information.  —  In  some  studies  —  as 
reading,  geography,  and  history  —  the  giving  of  infor- 
mation in  addition  to  what  is  found  in  the  regular  text- 
book should  be  encouraged.  The  information  may  be 
gathered  from  people  and  books  away  from  the  school, 
and  from  reference-books  in  the  school  or  public  library. 
The  teacher  should  also  be  ready  to  give  additional  in- 
formation and  to  answer  questions.  Some  of  the  ques- 
tions may  have  to  "  lie  upon  the  table,"  to  be  answered 
by  teacher  or  pupils  at  a  subsequent  time. 

Topical  Study  and  Recitation.  —  Instead  of  the  ques- 
tion and  answer  method  quite  generally  pursued  in  the 
schools,  carefully  prepared  topics  should  be  used.  There 
are  many  reasons  wh}'  tliis  form  of  recitation  is  to  be 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS.  45 

preferred.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  more  likely  to  gain 
the  interest  and  thoughtful  attention  of  pupils  than  the 
question  and  answer  method,  and  it  enables  them  to  ex- 
press tlieir  ideas  in  entire  and  connected  sentences.  If 
the  topics  are  carefully  arranged,  the  facts  learned  fol- 
low one  another  in  the  order  of  their  dependence,  and 
are  so  connected  as  to  enable  the  pupil  to  remember 
them. 

The  character  of  the  recitation  in  any  branch  deter- 
mines the  character  of  the  pupils'  stud}'.  If  original 
thought  and  independent  expression  are  encouraged  in 
the  recitation,  the  pupils'  study  will  be  likely  to  be 
thouglitful.  For  this  reason  also  the  topical  method  is 
to  be  preferred. 

Topical  study  will  be  found  especially  useful  for  re- 
views. Frequently  the  pupils  themselves  will  be  able 
to  prepare  the  topics,  but  the  teacher  should  see  to  it 
that, they  are  arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  a  good 
general  view  of  the  subject  and  to  assist  the  memory. 
Teachers  who  have  not  been  trained  in  preparing  top- 
ics, would  do  well  to  consult  the  best  text-books,  in 
which  good  outlines  will  be  found. 

Attrition.  —  The  best  uses  of  the  recitation  will  not 
be  gained  unless  the  close  attention  of  every  pupil  is 
secured.  As  soon  as  the  slightest  inattention  is  observed, 
the  teacher,  by  skilful  questions  and  illustrations,  should 
bring  back  the  wandering  thought  to  the  subject  in 
hand.  Nor  should  the  teacher  be  deceived  by  an  atten- 
tive manner  on  the  part  of  pupils.  An  earnest  gaze 
does  not  always  betoken  interest  in,  or  attention  to,  what 
is  said.  Members  of  the  class  should  be  ready  to  ask 
questions  or  to  add  thoughts  of  their  own  as  soon  as  a 


46  IklETHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

topic  is  recited.  In  all  teaching  exercises  and  explana- 
tions, the  teacher  should  occasionally  question  individ- 
ual pupils  to  test  their  knowledge  of  what  is  taught  or 
explained,  and  to  secure  attention. 

Economy  of  Time. 

The  large  number  of  pupils  in  some  schools  and  the 
number  of  recitations  to  be  heard  make  it  a  matter  of 
great  importance  to  employ  the  time  of  the  school  to 
the  best  possible  advantage.  This  will  depend  chiefly 
upon  the  selection  and  distribution  of  subjects  to  be 
taught,  —  including  both  course  of  studies  and  daily 
programme,  —  the  classification  of  the  school,  and  the 
wisdom  of  the  teacher  in  directing  the  study  and  reci- 
tation of  the  pupils.  To  direct  wisely  the  work  of  the 
school,  the  teacher  should  prepare  beforehand,  as  far  as 
possible,  for  the  busy  work  of  young  children  and  for  the 
recitation  of  all  classes,  especially  the  plans  and  illustra- 
tions for  teaching.  He  should  discourage  too  frequent 
calls  upon  his  time  to  give  special  assistance  to  j)upils 
between  and  during  recitations,  should  not  repeat  the 
answers  of  pupils  given  in  reply  to  questions,  should 
not,  as  a  rule,  call  for  voluntary  answers  to  questions  by 
the  raising  of  hands,  should  follow  as  closely  as  possible 
a  prescribed  order  of  recitations,  should  discourage 
desultory  and  irrelevant  conversation  during  any  exer- 
cise, and  should  begin  and  close  a  session  and  pass  from 
one  recitation  to  another  promptly,  without  unneces- 
sary formalities. 

Examinations. 

In  addition  to  the  examinations  which  are  given 
daily,  and  which  are  largely  oral,  there  should  be  given 


GENERAL    SUGGESTIONS.  47 

occasionally  short  written  examinations,  the  principal 
objects  of  which  are  (1)  to  indicate  to  the  teacher  how 
much  of  what  has  been  taught  is  retained  and  what 
needs  to  be  reviewed,  and  (2)  to  give  pupils  practice  in 
making  clear,  concise,  and  correct  statements  of  what 
they  know.  These  examinations  may  be  given  at  regu- 
lar intervals  or  at  the  close  of  a  general  subject,  and 
the  questions  should  be  made  out  by  the  teacher. 

Examinations  by  the  supervisor  are  given  to  indicate 
to  the  teacher  the  kind  of  work  which  is  expected  to  be 
done,  and  to  show  to  the  supervisor  whether  the  teach- 
ing and  instruction  have  been  of  the  right  kind. 


48  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 


READING. 

To  read  is  to  form  in  the  mind  ideas  and  thoughts 
by  means  of  the  written  or  printed  signs  representing 
them,  and  to  read  aloud  is  to  express  orally  those  ideas 
and  thoughts  so  as  to  be  heard.,  understood.,  and  felt.  In 
reading,  as  in  talking,  there  is  an  association  of  ideas 
with  their  proper  signs,  and  in  both  acts,  when  the  signs 
are  perceived,  the  ideas  represented  by  them  are  formed. 
The  process  of  learning  to  read,  therefore,  is  not  unlike 
that  of  learning  to  talk,  and  the  ways  of  teaching  a 
child  to  read  are  in  many  respects  like  the  ways  by 
which  he  was  taught  to  talk. 

First  Steps.  —  As  soon  as  the  child  enters  school,  he 
should  be  led  to  express  his  thoughts  freely  and  natu- 
rally. The  time  of  two  or  three  reading  recitations  may 
be  profitably  spent  in  making  him  feel  "  at  home  "  in  the 
schoolroom.  The  freedom  he  acquires  in  talking  will 
be  of  great  assistance  to  the  teacher  in  every  way.  Be- 
ginning by  the  natural  method  already  suggested,  the 
teacher  first  leads  the  child  to  think  by  presenting  some 
object  or  picture.  It  may  be  the  picture  of  a  man.  The 
child  recognizes  it,  and  says,  in  reply  to  the  teacher's 
question,  "  Man."  The  word  is  then  written  upon  the 
board,  and  named  by  the  children.  In  the  same  way  a 
dozen  simple  words  are  taught  first  by  occasioning  the 
idea,  and  then  having  the  children  give  its  oral  sign  or 
name.  When  these  words  can  be  named  at  sight,  let 
the  sentences  be  taught  in  a  similar  manner,  thus:  — 

Teacher.  "  What  is  that  ?  "  {Pointing  to  a  hat.} 

Pupils.  "  That  is  a  Jiat." 


KEADLNG.  49 

T.  "I  will  write  what  you  have  said."  (^Writlng.^ 
•'  What  am  I  writing?  " 

P.  "  That  is  a  hat." 

T.  "  Now  read  this  story  on  the  board." 

P.  "That  is  a  hat." 

Other  sentences,  as,  "  This  is  a ,"  "  I  see  a ," 

•'  Oh !  see  a ,"  "  Here  is  a ,"  "  There  is  a ," 

"  I  have  a ,"  "  You  have  a ,"  should  be  taught 

in  the  same  way,  using  words  which  have  been  taught 
and  other  words  to  the  number  of  fifty  or  sixty.  The 
words  and  sentences  should  be  carefully  written  upon 
the  board  many  times  before  the  children,  who  should 
be  led  to  read  with  as  good  expression  as  they  talk. 
Talking  by  the  children  serves  a  double  object.  It  not 
only  serves  as  a  model  for  their  reading,  but  also  tends 
to  increase  their  interest  in  and  attention  to  the  read- 
ing lesson.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  that  the 
talk  be  not  aimless,  and  that  the  interest  of  the  children 
be  not  taken  away  from  the  subject  in  hand  in  tlieir 
eagerness  to  tell  what  they  know. 

Do  not  point,  or  have  the  children  point,  at  each  word 
separately,  but  have  them  read  the  sentence  exactly  as 
they  would  speak  it.  If  they  do  not  do  this  at  first,  • 
ask  them  a  question  the  answer  of  which  will  be  in 
the  words  of  the  sentence  required  to  be  read.  For 
example,  if  the  sentence  is,  "  The  dog  is  on  the  mat," 
and  they  pause  after  "  is  "  or  "  on,"  ask  where  the  dog 
is,  so  as  to  bring  out  the  reply,  "  The  dog  is  on  the  mat." 
Then  ask  them  to  read  the  story  as  they  told  it  to  you.  \ 

Much  depends,  in  these  first  steps,  upon  the  teacher's 
ability  to  keep  the  attention  of  the  children,  and  to  have 
each  child  follow  every  part  of  every  exercise.    This  is  a 


50  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

difficult  matter,  especially  with  a  large  class.  But  with 
a  dozen  pupils  or  fewer  it  can  be  done,  if  the  teacher 
is  alert  in  the  use  of  those  expedients  which  primary 
teachers  come  to  know.  When  the  interest  flags,  quesr 
tion  those  who  are  least  attentive,  arouse  their  curiosityi 
by  writing  a  new  story  on  the  board,  praise  each  honest! 
effort,  and  appeal  to  the  pride  of  each  one  to  do  as  well 
as  some  other  one  has  done.  Do  not  keep  the  children 
too  long  in  recitation,  and  constantly  vary  the  exercise, 
so  that  it  may  not  become  monotonous  or  tiresome. 

If  any  of  the  words  of  a  new  sentence  are  unknown 
to  the  pupils,  teach  those  words  upon  the  board  before 
the  reading  of  the  sentence  is  attempted.  After  the 
words  are  known,  and  recognized  on  the  board  or  in  the 
book,  ask  the  pupils  to  read  the  sentence  silently  first,, 
and  then  orally.  If  any  pupil  still  falters,  tell  him  he 
is  not  ready  to  read  it  aloud,  and  that  he  must  read  the 
story  or  sentence  over  again  to  himself. 

The  first  fifty  words  taught  should  represent  ideas 
already  familiar  to  the  children;  that  is,  they  should  be 
words  which  are  in  their  spoken  vocabulary.  In  select- 
ing the  words  to  be  read  first,  reference  also  should  be 
had  to  phonic  resemblance,  so  that  when  the  time  for 
analysis  comes,  the  words  known  can  be  arranged  in 
groups,  as  man^fan^  cat,  rat.  It  will  generally  be  a  safe 
rule  to  teach  from  the  board  or  chart  all  of  the  words 
and  sentences  on  the  first  four  pages  of  the  primer 
which  is  to  be  first  placed  into  the  hands  of  the  children. 

When  the  book  is  taken,  as  it  may  be,  in  two  or  three 
months  after  the  children  enter  school,  there  will  be  lit- 
tle difficulty  in  reading  the  first  few  pages,  if  the  words 
and  sentences  on   those  pages  are  thoroughly  taught 


READING.  61 

from  the  board.  But  when  the  book  is  taken,  do  not 
give  up  the  board  and  chart  work.  Every  new  lesson 
will  have  to  be  taught  from  the  board  first,  and  frequent 
reviews  will  have  to  be  made  in  the  same  way  so  that 
the  words  may  not  be  forgotten.  Soon  after  the  book 
is  taken,  analysis  of  words  by  sound  should  be  begun, 
first  by  pronouncing  the  words  very  slowly,  as  wi-a-'w, 
then  more  slowly,  until  the  sounds  of  the  word  are  sepa- 
rated and  their  signs  are  recognized.  After  this  practice 
has  continued  for  some  time,  new  words  will  be  recog- 
nized at  sight  by  unconsciously  putting  the  known 
signs  into  new  combinations.  For  instance,  if  the  words 
man^  mat,  cat,  rat,  are  analyzed,  and  the  sigus  of  each 
word  are  readily  recognized,  the  children  will  know  the 
words  can  and  ran  without  being  told  them.  Slow 
progress  must  be  expected  at  this  stage,  and  great  pa- 
tience must  be  exercised  until  the  children  are  able  to 
analyze  without  help  all  the  words  they  have  learned. 
Phonic  drill  may  be  given  for  the  purpose  also  of  secur- 
ing clearer  enunciation. 

Analysis  by  letter  need  receive  no  special  attention. 
The  spelling  of  words  will  be  learned  by  degrees  after 
the  first  half-year,  and  before  the  close  of  the  first  year 
the  pupils  will  be  able  to  spell  orally  the  words  they 
read,  without  much  time  being  spent  in  teaching  them 
the  names  of  the  letters.  In  oral  spelling  during  the  first 
and  second  years  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  pupils 
"  spell  by  sound "  first,  then  by  letter,  and  lastly  give 
the  name  of  the  silent  letter  or  letters. 

Transition.  —  To  pass  from  script  to  print  will  not 
be  found  difficult  if  care  is  taken  not  to  present  new 
or  unfamiliar  words  in  the  new  form.     If  the  learner 


52  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

has  begun  in  script,  the  transition  will  of  course  be 
made  when  the  book  is  taken.  If  it  is  found  at  all  diffi- 
cult for  him  to  read  the  printed  words  readily,  let  the 
two  forms,  script  and  print,  be  placed  together  upon  the 
board  and  read.  After  two  or  three  lessons  of  this  kind 
there  will  be  no  difficulty.  After  the  book  is  taken,  let 
the  reading  of  both  forms  go  on  together  throughout 
the  course. 

SILENT   READING. 

Much  of  the  reading  we  do  after  we  leave  school  is 
done  silently.  We  should  therefore  encourage  the  pu- 
pils to  read  silently  in  the  best  way.  There  may  be  a 
regular  exercise  for  the  purpose  in  which  pupils  are 
given  a  piece  to  read  silently.  It  is  also  done  in  a  reg- 
ular reading  recitation  when  members  of  the  class  read 
silently  while  one  of  the  class  reads  orally.  The  main  I 
object  to  be  secured  in  these  exercises  is  to  get  the  pu- j 
pils  to  think  of  what  they  are  reading.  This  is  don^j 
by  questioning  with  the  view  of  having  them  reproduce 
the  thought  in  their  own  words.  Put  into  the  hands  of 
the  pupils  a  piece  which  they  have  not  seen  before,  and 
give  them  time  to  read  it  over  carefully  once.  Then 
have  them  lay  the  piece  aside  and  talk  or  write  about 
what  they  have  read.  Such  exercises  will  cultivate  the 
power  of  attention  and  lead  the  pupils  to  gather  quickly 
the  thoughts  expressed  on  the  printed  page.  Exercise 
in  silent  reading  is  also  had  in  preparing  the  regular 
reading  lesson. 

ORAL   READING. 

Objects.  —  From    our  definition  we   learn    that   the 
object  of  oral  reading  is  "  to  be  heard,  understood,  and 


READING.  53 

felt."  The  good  teacher  of  reading  keeps  this  object  in 
mind  in  all  of  his  teaching,  and  makes  his  pupils  feel 
that  Avlien  they  read  anything,  it  is  for  the  purpose  of 
making  others  understand  and  feel  what  is  read.  But 
they  cannot  do  this  without  themselves  understanding 
and  feeling  what  they  read.  In  other  words,  the  reader 
should  not  direct  the  words  he  utters  to  the  page  of  the 
book,  but  to  a  listening  audience.  There  should  be  a 
constant  effort  on  the  reader's  part  to  enter  into  the 
feelings  and  thought  of  the  author.  If  there  is  a 
description  of  natural  scenery  to  be  read,  the  reader 
should  as  far  as  possible  form  the  mental  picture  of  the 
described  scene.  If  there  is  a  conversation  between 
two  people  to  be  read,  the  states  and  thoughts  of  the 
speakers  should  be  shared  by  the  reader.  If  from  the 
beginning  the  pupil  is  constantly  taught  to  feel  and 
think  while  he  reads,  the  chief  obstacle  to  good  reading 
will  be  overcome. 

If,  now,  we  analyze  the  general  purpose  of  reading,  to 
ascertain  what  particular  ends  are  to  be  sought  in  teach- 
ing reading,  we  may  find  three  principal  ends,  or  objects; 
viz.,  (1)  naturalness  of  expression,  (2)  correct  pronun- 
ciation, (3)  fluency. 

Naturalness  of  Expression.  —  To  read  naturally  is 
to  read  as  one  should  talk,  for  the  reason  that  in  both 
acts  there  is  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  to  be 
understood  and  felt.  In  reading,  as  in  talking,  the 
thought  precedes  the  expression,  and  if  the  thought  of 
the  writer  is  readily  understood  by  the  reader,  and  the 
words  are  quickly  recognized,  there  ought  to  be  as  little 
difficulty  in  reading  naturally  as  there  is  in  talking  natu- 
rally.    How  shall  we  lead  the  i)Upil,  first,  to  think  the 


54  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

thoughts  expressed  in  print  or  script,  and,  secondly,  to 
express  those  thoughts  to  others  so  as  to  be  understood 
and  felt?  The  conditions  mentioned  under  the  general 
head  of  "Object  of  Oral  Reading"  should  be  always 
observed.  Lead  the  pupil  to  think  and  feel  what  he 
reads  by  constant  questioning.  Question  him  before  he 
begins  to  read  a  given  lesson.  Question  him  after  he 
has  read  a  paragraph  or  a  sentence,  or  whenever  you 
think  his  mind  is  wandering  from  the  subject.  Let  the 
questions  be  such  as  will  encourage  him  to  enter  into 
the  feelings  and  thoughts  of  the  writer,  and  to  become 
interested  in  what  is  to  follow.  Sometimes  the  ques- 
tions may  be  such  as  will  oblige  the  pupil  to  answer  in 
his  own  words,  and  sometimes  they  may  be  such  as  will 
allow  the  answer  to  be  in  the  words  of  the  book,  to 
serve  as  a  model  for  expression  in  reading. 

But  to  know  the  thought  expressed  in  any  sentence, 
the  pupil  must  know  what  each  word  means.  Difficult 
and  unfamiliar  words,  therefore,  should  be  taught  before 
the  pupil  reads  either  silently  or  orally.  It  is  true  that 
the  meaning  of  words  is  known,  especially  nice  shades 
of  meaning,  by  observing  their  use  in  spoken  and 
written  language ;  but  in  forming  habits  of  correct  ex- 
pression, it  is  well  to  know  the  use  of  all  the  words 
which  are  to  be  read.  Pupils  who  are  allowed  to  halt 
before  every  unknown  or  difficult  word,  waiting  to  spell 
out  or  to  be  told  the  word,  cannot  give  much  attention 
to  the  thought  to  be  expressed.  Difficult  words  of  a 
new  lesson  should  be  taught  at  the  close  of  every  lesson, 
objectively  or  by  familiar  illustrations.  The  following 
words,  from  a  single  page  of  a  third  reader,  could  be 
taught  in  this  way  :  distant^  stretched,  engineer,  ti'histled. 


READING.  55 

notice,  gladness.  After  these  words  have  been  taught, 
they  may  be  used  in  sentences  by  both  teacher  and 
pupils,  and  written  upon  the  board  for  special  study. 
In  preparing  the  next  day's  lesson,  the  pupils  will  write 
out  sentences  of  their  own,  putting  in  the  words  which 
have  been  taught,  and  other  difficult  words. 

Correct  Proimnciatioii.  —  Words  may  be  very  natu- 
rally  read,  but  if  they  are  not  correctly  pronounced, 
they  may  not  be  understood,  or  the  attention  of  the 
hearers  may  be  diverted  from  the  thought  of  the  author 
to  the  blunders  of  the  reader.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
to  teach  the  pupils  the  correct  pronunciation  of  words. 

Correct  pronunciation  is  gained  by  imitation,  by  cor- 
rection, and  from  the  dictionary.  Children  of  all  ages 
learn  to  pronounce  by  imitation,  and  sometimes  a  bad 
example  is  more  powerful  than  that  which  is  set  before 
them  in  the  schoolroom.  Constant  correction  in  all  of 
the  oral  exercises  of  the  school,  supplemented  by  special 
lessons  in  connection  with  the  reading  lessons,  may  do 
much  to  counteract  the  influence  of  careless  or  ignorant 
companions  outside  of  school  hours.  The  difficult  words' 
of  every  new  lesson  should  be  pronounced  by  the  teacher , 
if  the  pupils  are  young.  Older  pupils  should  learn  to 
use  the  dictionary  for  correct  pronunciation. 

Pronunciation  matches,  by  "  pronouncing  down,"  or 
by  choosing  sides,  may  help  to  create  an  interest  in  the 
subject,  and  encourage  study.  Difficult  words  or  words 
most  frequently  mispronounced  may  be  placed  upon  the 
blackboard  from  time  to  time  and  practised  upon.  The 
following  list  is  given  as  an  example :  — 

Lenient,  tiny,  exhaust,  finance,  contents,  carbine,  debris,  depot, 
jugular,  lien,  squalor,  mitten,  often,  naive,  beneath,  oaths,  truths, 


66  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

sacrilegious,  bronchitis,  nape,  extant,  isolated,  suite,  coadjutor, 
comely,  deficit,  exhausted,  matinee,  gondola,  cognomen,  tirade, 
epicurean,  vagaries,  precedence,  complaisant,  decade,  lyceum, 
notable,  heinous. 

Clear  E^iunciation.  —  One  may  read  naturally  and 
pronounce  the  words  correctly  and  still  fail  to  give  that 
clearness  and  distinctness  of  utterance  which  are  neces- 
sary to  make  the  expression  agreeable  to  the  ear.  In 
other  words,  we  cannot  always  take  the  enunciation  of 
words  spoken  in  conversation  as  a  standard  for  reading. 
Sounds  of  words  are  frequently  run  into  each  other  or 
omitted  altogether.  Wrong  and  impure  tones  are  used, 
or  the  tones  are  uttered  in  a  drawling  manner.  To  cor- 
rect these  common  faults  of  speech,  and  the  not  uncom- 
mon dialects,  both  foreign  and  native,  which  are  heard 
in  many  schools,  vocal  exercises  should  be  given  daily, 
either  in  connection  with  the  reading  lesson  or  as  a 
general  exercise.  Purity  of  tone  and  distinctness  of 
articulation  are  the  two  objects  to  be  sought  in  these 
exercises.  Arrange  carefully  a  few  short  exercises 
which  have  in  vieAv  one  or  the  other  of  these  objects, 
and  encourage  the  pupils  to  practise  upon  them  out  of 
school.  Correct,  by  individual  and  concert  practice, 
impurities  of  tone,  such  as  the  nasal,  guttural,  and  pec- 
toral quality.  The  broad  vowel  sounds,  either  alone  or 
in  words,  should  be  practised  upon  to  secure  pure  tones. 
In  such  exercises  see  that  the  jaw  is  used  freely,  and 
that  a  free  action  of  the  vocal  organs  is  not  hindered 
by  a  poor  position  of  the  body. 

To  secure  distinct  articulation,  have  the  pupils  prac- 
tise upon  those  exercises  which  will  give  an  easy  action 
of  the  li[)S,  tongue,  and  palate.     Careful   analysis  of 


READING.  57 

words  by  sound  will  be  found  to  be  useful  in  securing 
distinct  articulation.  Exercises  like  the  following  may- 
be used  for  a  similar  purpose.  Other  exercises  will  be 
found  in  the  various  school  readers. 

1.  Pronounce  clearly,  moving  the  jaw  freely,  the 
following :  — 

ah         e         00         aw 

o  a         1  oy         ow 

Pronounce  the  same  Avith  the  sound  of  k  ;  as,  kah,  ke^ 

etc. 

2.  Pronounce  vowel  sounds :  — 

a,  a,  a,  a ;    e,  e ;    i,  i ;    o,  o,  o ;    ii,  u,  u ;    oi,  ou. 

Pronounce  the  same  with  the  sound  of  k :  kd,  kd, 
etc. 

3.  Practise  upon  the  following  until  the  action  of 
the  organs  of  speech  is  accurate  and  energetic.  Do  not 
use  much  breath  in  the  exercise,  and  let  the  touch  of 
the  tongue,  lips,  and  palate  be  of  the  shortest  possible 

duration.    ^  i  i  i 

t  p  k  d  b  g 

at         a[)         ak         ad         ab         ag 
et,  etc. 
it,  etc. 

4.  Repeat  at  first  slowly  and  then  rapidly  :  — 

lie  talks  ill  earnest. 
On  either  side  is  an  ocean. 
She  sought  shelter.     Shelter  sought  she. 
The  railroad  ran  directly  across  the  rapid  river. 
With  a  thick   thimble,  Thei'esa  Thornton  thrusts  thirty-three 
threads  through  the  thick  cloth. 

Skilful  pilots  gain  their  reputation  from  storms  and  tempests. 
Round  the  rough  rock  the  ragged  rascal  ran. 
Shoes  and  socks  shock  Susan. 


58  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Pronounce  distinctly :  — 

Help(P>,  elfW,  else(^>,  felt<^),  child,  milk,  lamp,  tent,  dance,  ink, 
sharp,  task,  health,  Welsh,  Welch,  nymph,  dreampt,  ninth,  strength, 
depth,  steps,  apt,  fifth,  fifes,  left,  broths,  wasp,  post,  looks,  act, 
alps,  gulped,  gulfs,  twelfth,  lamps,  stamped,  triumphs,  tempts, 
tenths,  against,  prints,  lengths,  ringst,  harps,  warped,  serfs,  earths, 
first,  droopst,  adepts,  fifths,  laughst,  rafts,  lookst,  facts,  asps,  posts, 
desks,  satst,  patched,  lookst,  acts,  helpst,  twelfths,  niid'st,  halt'st, 
filched,  limp'st,  attemp'st,  want'st,  flinched,  precincts,  thinkst, 
sixths,  texts. 

The  quality  of  tone  and  articulation  often  depends 
upon  the  control  or  management  of  the  breath.  For 
this  purpose  breathing  exercises  such  as  are  given  else- 
where,^ will  be  found  helpful,  especially  to  older  pupils. 

Fluency.  —  By  fluency  is  meant  the  ability  to  recog- 
nize quickly  and  to  pronounce  readily  the  words  as 
they  are  seen  in  reading.  This  can  be  gained  only 
by  constant  and  long-continued  practice  in  easy  reading 
at  sight. 

Sight-Reading .  —  In  addition  to  the  regular  reading- 
lesson,  which  may  be  short,  there  should  be  frequent 
practice  in  reading  at  sight  by  pupils  of  all  grades. 
Four  or  five  pages  may  be  read  daily  at  sight  in 
almost  every  grade  ;  but  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  reading  of  this  kind  be  sufficiently  simple  for  the 
pupils.  The  regular  reading  lesson  may  be  quite  difKi- 
cult,  that  is,  it  may  contain  several  new  and  diflficult 
words  wliich  should  be  taught  in  the  way  indicated 
above  ;  but  in  the  sight-reading  there  should  be  few 
words  not  previously  known,  the  object  being  to  accus- 
tom the  pupils  to  recognize  the  words  quickly  as  they 

1  p.  2»4. 


READING.  69 

come  to  them.  The  sight-reading  should  not  be 
"  studied  "  or  read  silently  beforehand  unless  it  is  too 
difficult  to  be  read  easily  at  sight.  If  there  are  some 
words  which  the  pupils  have  not  met  before,  they  should 
be  taught  before  the  reading  begins ;  and  if  the  reader 
still  finds  difficulty  in  reading  the  sentence  or  paragraph, 
it  may  be  read  silently  before  it  is  read  orally. 

To  encourage  thought  in  reading,  it  is  always  well  to 
follow  the  reading  by  questioning.  Let  the  questions 
be  such,  however,  as  will  oblige  the  pupils  to  give  long 
answers  and  to  give  them  in  their  own  words.  In  the 
lower  classes,  well-graded  reading-books  will  be  found 
best  for  sight-reading,  although  there  are  some  simply 
written  books  of  other  kinds  admirably  fitted  for  the 
purpose.  In  the  higher  classes,  voyages,  books  of 
travel,  histories,  and  biographies  will  be  found  useful 
not  only  for  sight-reading,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of 
interesting  pupils  in  geography  and  history.  Occasion- 
ally it  may  be  found  well  to  allow  the  pupils  to  select 
pieces  or  stories  to  be  read  to  the  entire  school. 
Such  practice  will  give  them  confidence  and  help 
them  to  feel  that  their  object  in  reading  orally  is  to 
interest  others. 

Regular  Reading  Lessons.  —  Important  as  sight- 
reading  is  for  securing  the  principal  objects  of  oral 
reading,  the  use  of  the  regular  reading  lesson  should 
not  be  lost  sight  of.  Unlike  reading  to  be  read  at 
sight,  the  books  for  assigned  lessons  should  be  some- 
what difficult  for  the  pupils.  The  advantages  of  having 
regular  reading  lessons  a  little  in  advance  of  the  pupil's 
comprehension  are,  (1)  new  words  are  added  to  the 
pupils'    vocabulary,  (2)  the  thought   of  the  pupils  is 


60  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

raised  to  a  higher  plane.  If  all  that  the  pupils  read 
is  so  simple  as  to  be  wholly  within  their  comprehen- 
sion, they  are  not  likely  to  learn  many  words  new  to 
them,  and  the  thought  expressed  is  so  simple  as  to  call 
for  little  mental  exertion.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  children  like  that  only  which  is  simple  and  easy. 
It  is  true  that,  by  want  of  proper  exercise,  their  minds 
may  become  incapable  of  much  effort ;  but  with  careful 
training  children  may  read  understandingly  and  come 
to  like  the  best  of  our  English  classics,  both  in  prose 
and  poetry.  It  will  be  found  well  in  reading  such 
literature  to  encourage  the  pupils  to  give  their  idea  of 
the  meaning  of  a  figure  of  speech  or  of  a  difficult  phrase 
or  sentence,  and  gradually,  by  judicious  assistance,  lead 
them  to  discover  its  full  meaning  and  force.  Such  ex- 
ercise will  be  found  as  interesting  as  guessing  a  puzzle 
or  working  out  a  problem  in  arithmetic.  Occasionally, 
after  a  chapter  or  poem  has  been  read,  the  pupils  will 
find  it  profitable  and  agreeable  to  write  an  abstract  of 
it  in  their  own  words. 

Preparation  of  Lesson.  —  It  cannot  be  expected  that 
very  young  children  will  "study"  a  reading  lesson  to 
any  extent.  The  most  that  they  can  do  is  to  practise 
in  copying  the  words  and  sentences  of  their  lessons 
from  the  blackboard.  Neither  can  older  pupils  pre- 
pare a  reading  lesson  in  the  right  way  unless  they  are 
shown  how  to  prepare  it,  or  unless  the  recitation  leads 
them  to  do  it.  The  character  of  the  recitation  in  every 
branch  of  study  determines  the  character  of  the  study. 
This  is  especially  true  in  reading.  Just  before  the  read- 
ing lesson  begins,  some  or  all  of  the  class  should  be 
culled  upon  to  give  the  substance  of  the  lesson  in  their 


READING.  61 

own  words.  This  exercise,  if  rightly  conducted,  fur- 
nishes practice  in  oral  expression,  and  at  the  same  time 
encourages  pupils  to  find  out  the  story  or  the  thought 
of  the  author  before  they  come  into  the  class.  Again, 
at  the  close  of  the  recitation,  the  teacher  should  teach 
the  most  difficult  words  of  the  next  lesson,  and  if  his 
pupils  be  young,  ask  them  to  bring  into  the  class  writ- 
ten sentences  of  their  own  construction  containing  the 
words  thus  taught.  By  this  practice,  the  pupils  will 
become  more  familiar  with  the  difficult  words  of  the 
lesson  and  at  the  same  time  add  to  their  vocabulary. 
The  sentences  should  be  glanced  at  or  looked  over  by 
the  teacher,  to  see  that  no  mistakes  are  made  in  the  use 
of  words,  and  to  encourage  pupils  to  write  the  sentences. 

To  induce  the  older  pupils  to  consult  the  reference- 
books  of  the  school  library,  inquiry  should  be  made  in 
recitation  for  facts  connected  with  any  name  or  place 
mentioned  in  the  text,  and  for  synonyms,  derivation, 
and  definition  of  words. 

The  greatest  value  of  questioning  as  an  incentive  to 
study  will  not  be  seen  if  it  is  done  wholly  by  the 
teacher.  After  a  paragraph  or  sentence  has  been 
read,  the  pupils  themselves  should  be  encouraged  to 
question  the  reader  in  regard  to  its  general  meaning  or 
concerning  any  part  of  it.  Thus  there  may  be  called 
for  the  definitions  and  synonyms  of  difhcult  words, 
explanation  of  figures,  location  of  places,  facts  about 
persons  and  past  events  mentioned  in  the  text,  and 
such  other  information  as  the  ingenuity  and  previous 
study  of  the  questioners  will  suggest.  Pupils  in  pre- 
paring for  questioning  will  be  likely  to  be  more  partic- 
ular and  earnest  than   in  preparing  sinqily  to  answer 


62  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

questions  of  the  teacher.  Moreover,  questioning  by 
the  pupils  greatly  adds  to  the  interest  of  a  reading 
exercise. 

Principles.  —  The  pupils  up  to  the  age  of  twelve  or 
fourteen  years  are  learning  to  think  as  they  read,  and 
to  acquire  the  art  of  reading  so  as  to  be  understood 
and  felt.  Up  to  this  time  nothing  has  been  said  of 
pitch,  emj)hasis,  or  any  of  the  principles  which  underlie 
good  reading.  When  the  art  has  been  acquired  to  a 
tolerable  degree  of  proficiency,  the  older  pupils  may 
begin  to  learn  principles  which  may  aid  them  in  under- 
standing and  reading  difficult  or  obscure  passages.  In- 
stead, however,  of  presenting  the  rules  and  principles 
ready  made,  they  should  be  taught  as  in  other  depart- 
ments of  study.  For  example,  if  it  is  desired  to  teach 
emphasis,  let  the  pupils  read  the  following  sentence  with 
the  desire  to  tell  how  the  horse  trots:  "The  black  horse 
trots  rapidly."  Again,  ask  the  pupils  to  read  the  same 
sentence  so  as  to  tell  which  horse  trots  rapidly.  A  few 
questions  will  bring  out  the  idea  that  certain  words 
were  uttered  with  more  force  than  others,  or  in  a  dif- 
ferent way.  They  may  be  told  that  such  words  were 
emphasized,  and  be  asked  to  emphasize  other  words. 
When  they  have  well  in  mind  the  idea  of  emphasis, 
lead  them  to  discover  the  principle  of  correct  emphasis. 
For  example,  place  upon  the  blackboard  a  number  of 
sentences  like  the  following :  "  John  is  here,"  "  Thomas 
is  here,"  "  We  are  all  here,"  and  ask  the  pupils  to  read 
them  naturally.  After  they  find  that  "  Thomas  "  and 
"  all  "  are  emphasized,  lead  them  to  see  that  those  words 
express  new  ideas,  or  ideas  not  previously  expressed. 
After  a  sufficient  number  of  examples  of  this  kind  have 


READING.  63 

been  read,  they  will  give  a  rule  of  their  own  making : 
"Words  expressing  new  ideas  are  emphasized."  In 
the  same  way  develop  the  rule  that  "  Words  express- 
ing important  ideas  are  emphasized,"  and  also  the  rule 
that  "  Words  expressing  contrasted  ideas  are  empha- 
sized." By  combination,  the  general  rule  is  formed: 
"  Words  expressing  new,  important,  and  contrasted 
ideas  are  emphasized." 

The  next  point  to  bring  out  may  be  the  kinds  of  em- 
phasis and  the  various  terms  used  to  express  them.  The 
pupils,  by  reading  understandingly  and  feelingly  several 
sentences  like  the  following,  will  see  that  some  words 
are  emphasized  by  using  more  force,  some  by  making  a 
pause  after  the  words,  some  by  raising  or  dropping  the 
voice,  and  some  by  prolonging  the  words  :  — 

I  assure  you  that  the  charge  is  false. 

The  boy  !  oh,  where  was  he  ? 

One^  if  by  laud^,  and  two''  if  by  sea''. 

The  day  is  c-o-l-d  and  d-a-r-k  and  d-r-e-a-r-y. 

After  sufficient  practice  of  this  kind,  the  names  of  the 
kinds  of  emphasis  may  be  given :  (1)  stress,  (2)  pause, 
(3^  inflection,  (4)  time. 

It  will  be  interesting  and  useful  for  the  pupils  to 
apply  the  knowledge  of  emphasis  which  they  have 
gained  to  passages  in  their  reading  lessons.  Take,  for 
example,  the  lines,  — 

"  Scarcely  a  man  is  now  alive 
Who  I'emembers  that  famous  day  and  year." 

Nine  out  of  ten  pupils  would  at  first  emphasize  the 
words  "''  day  "  and  "  year."     Application  of  their  rule  of 


64  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

emphasis  will  teach  them  that  "  remembers  "  is  the  word 
to  be  emphasized. 

Pupils  in  the  higher  grades  are  much  inclined  to 
emphasize  too  many  words  —  so  many  as  to  destroy 
the  effect  of  emphasis  where  it  belongs.  To  prevent 
this  fault,  application  of  the  rule  of  emphasis  should  be 
constantly  made,  and  the  reader  should  be  asked  why  a 
particular  emphasis  is  made.  If,  for  example,  a  pupil 
reads  the  sentence,  "Put  a  ring  on  his  hand  and  shoes 
on  his  feet,"  and  emphasizes,  as  he  is  likely  to,  ring, 
hand,  shoes,  and  feet,  the  application  of  the  rule  will 
lead  him  in  a  second  reading  not  to  emphasize  hand 
and  feet  as  if  they  expressed  important  ideas. 

The  same  course  should  be  pursued  in  teaching  other 
facts,  relating  to  quality  of  voice,  movement,  pitch,  force, 
and  inflection.  The  teacher  should  first  gather  such 
facts  as  may  be  thought  useful,  from  reading  or  other 
books,  and  then  teach  the  facts  by  first  presenting  the 
examples  and  leading  the  pupils  to  deduce  the  facts  or 
principles  from  the  examples  given. 

Cultivation  of  Taste.  —  It  is  the  privilege  as  well 
as  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  do  much  toward  elevating 
the  reading  tastes  of  the  young.  In  no  way  can  the 
extensive  reading  of  the  worthless  and  demoralizing 
literature  which  now  fills  the  shops  be  more  effec- 
tually checked  than  by  creating  a  desire  and  demand 
for  something  better.  Good  methods  of  teaching  Avill 
do  much  in  this  direction  ;  for  the  pupil  in  being  led 
to  think  as  he  reads,  finds  positive  pleasure  in  reading 
thoughtful  books,  and  having  learned  to  read  such  books 
easily  at  sight,  he  is  no  longer  attracted  solely  by  the 
excitement  of  the  narrative,  or  by  the  simplicity  of  the 


READING.  65 

language,  but  is  willing  and  glad  to  read  the  best  books 
within  his  reach.  Moreover,  the  constant  use  of  good 
supplementary  reading  in  school  gives  him  a  taste  for 
good  reading  and  a  distaste  for  what  is  worthless  and 
bad.  The  best  books  of  the  best  writers  should,  there- 
fore, be  put  into  the  hands  of  children  as  early  as  pos- 
sible. As  soon  as  they  have  become  accustomed  by 
much  practice  to  reading  at  sight  the  third  or  even  the 
second  reader,  fairy  tales,  fables,  and  selections  from 
such  authors  as  Hawthorne,  Whittier,  Wordsworth,  and 
Longfellow  should  be  placed  in  their  hands  to  read. 

In  addition  to  the  direct  influence  which  is  exerted 
in  the  reading  classes,  the  teacher  should  direct  the 
outside  reading  of  the  pupils  by  suggesting  good  books 
in  all  departments.  Every  high  and  grammar  school 
should  have  a  carefully  selected  library  from  which 
books  can  be  taken  home  by  the  pupils.  If  there  is  no 
library  connected  with  the  school,  the  teacher  should 
suggest  to  the  pupils  Avhat  books  of  the  public  or  circu- 
lating library  will  be  best  for  them  to  read.  The  geog- 
raphy, history,  observation,  and  information  lessons  will 
afford  a  good  opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  suggest 
books  or  periodicals  from  which  the  pupils  may  learn 
other  interesting  facts  in  connection  with  the  subjects 
studied. 

Frequently,  or  as  often  as  once  a  week,  time  should 
be  taken  to  talk  with  the  pupils  about  what  they  have 
read  out  of  school,  occasionally  calling  for  an  abstract 
or  synopsis  of  a  book  when  completed,  and  their  opinion 
of  it. 


66  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


WRITING. 

The  art  of  writing  legibly  should  be  acquired  as  early 
in  the  school  life  of  the  child  as  possible ;  first,  because 
it  is  a  direct  assistance  to  the  other  work  of  the  school, 
and  secondly,  on  account  of  the  shortness  of  time  dur- 
ing which  many  children  attend  school. 

Appliances.  —  During  the  first  year  there  should  be 
provided  ruled  slates,  and  sharpened  slate-pencils  at 
least  four  inches  in  length.  The  lines  for  the  small 
letters  may  be  one-fourth  of  an  inch  apart,  and  even 
wider  for  work  of  the  first  few  weeks.  After  the 
first  year,  paper  and  lead-pencils  should  be  provided  in 
addition  to  the  slates  and  slate-pencils.  The  spaced 
lines  may  be,  during  the  second  year,  three-sixteenths 
of  an  inch  apart  for  the  small  letters.  The  proper 
height  of  capitals  and  tall  letters  should  also  be  indi- 
cated in  the  ruling.  During  the  next  two  years,  or  as 
long  as  spaced  lines  are  thought  to  be  necessary,  the 
lines  for  the  small  letters  maybe  a  little  more  than  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  apart.  Copy-books  of  a  suitable  kind 
should  also  be  provided  as  early  as  the  second  year,  and 
pen  and  ink  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  in 
school.  Blackboard  and  crayons  will  be  found  indis- 
pensable by  the  teacher,  and  writing-charts  and  card- 
board copies  will  be  of  great  assistance. 

Grading.  —  In  graded  schools  all  the  teaching  exer- 
cises in  writing  should  be  given  to  the  entire  school, 
and  much  of  the  practice  should  be  carried  on  together. 
Special  assistance,  however,  will  have  to  be  given  to  a 
few  of  the  poorer  writers  during  the  lesson.     Opportu- 


WKITING.  67 

nity  should  be  given  these  pupils  to  take  extra  time 
for  practice  upon  a  lesson,  and  they  should  be  advised 
to  practise  out  of  school  hours. 

It  may  be  found  advantageous  in  writing,  as  in  draw- 
ing, to  divide  the  ungraded  school  into  two  sections 
both  for  teaching  and  for  practice.  At  least  two  uni- 
form lessons  a  week  should  be  given  each  section.  At 
other  times  the  pupils  might  go  on  in  their  copy-book, 
independent  of  each  other ;  but  at  no  time  should  undue 
haste  or  scribbling  be  allowed. 

Objects  and  Means.  —  Legibility  first  and  rapidity 
afterwards  are  the  ends  to  be  reached  in  writing,  and 
they  are  reached  only  by  constant  practice  either  in 
imitating  good  models  or  in  following  rules  which  have 
been  taught. 

Words  and  Sentences.  —  The  first  copies  for  imitation 
may  be  the  words  and  sentences  which  have  been  taught 
and  placed  upon  the  board  in  the  reading  exercise. 
The  earlier  efforts  of  the  children  in  writing  will  be 
very  crude,  and  it  may  take  many  trials  before  any 
appreciable  progress  is  made ;  but  with  the  help  of  the 
teacher  in  making  the  copy  upon  the  slate  and  in 
guiding  the  hands  of  the  children,  it  will  be  found 
that  easy  words  like  man,  on,  and  cat  will  soon  be 
made  so  as  to  be  recognized.  It  will  be  well  to 
encourage  the  children  at  first  by  giving  for  copies 
words  which  they  can  write  the  best,  leaving  the  more 
difiicult  words  until  they  have  a  good  command  of  the 
hand. 

The  copies  upon  the  blackboard  and  slate  should  be 
made  in  the  presence  of  the  children,  that  they  may 
know  how  the  letters  are  formed.     In  order  to  have  the 


68  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

form  of  the  letters  clear  and  distinct,  the  copies  should 
be  written  at  first  in  a  large  hand,  and  the  writing  of 
the  children  should  also  be  large,  as  indicated  by  a 
wide  ruling.  Time  may  be  saved  by  placing  cardboard 
copies  before  the  children  instead  of  writing  copies 
upon  the  board  or  slate ;  but  this  should  be  done  only 
after  the  words  have  been  written  in  the  children's 
presence. 

After  the  first  year  the  children  may  be  able  to  write 
without  a  copy,  and  yet  the  work  of  imitation  must  go 
on  until  all  of  the  letters  are  accurately  formed.  Much 
depends  upon  the  teacher's  ability  to  write  well  before 
his  pupils.  While  it  is  true  that  a  poor  writer  may,  by 
substituting  the  copies  of  others,  lead  his  pupils  to 
write  well,  it  should  be  understood  that  a  teacher  who 
can  present  the  proper  form  for  imitation  has  a  great 
advantage  over  one  who  cannot  write  well,  or  who  has 
to  write  his  copies  out  of  sight  of  the  children. 

Single  Letters.  —  While  the  copying  of  words  and 
sentences  is  required  in  the  lower  grades,  drill  upon 
single  letters  should  also  be  carried  on  in  regular  order, 
as  indicated  in  the  "  Course  of  Studies."  The  aim  in 
these  exercises  is  accuracy.  No  new  letter  should  be 
taken  up  until  the  preceding  letters  are  made  with 
almost  perfect  accuracy.  For  example,  the  children 
are  given  i  to  write  during  the  first  half-year.  Let 
them  practise  upon  it  a  little  every  day  until  there  can 
be  no  improvement,  and  then  they  may  take  the  next 
letter,  u.  This  practice  will  lead  them  into  that  control 
which  is  necessary  to  the  good  writer,  and  will  give  a 
good  foundation  for  subsequent  work. 

Position.  —  During  the  first  two  years,  or  while  the 


WRITING.  69 

children  are  confined  to  tlie  use  of  the  pencil  in  writing, 
due  attention  is  given  to  position ;  but  as  we  do  not 
wish  to  make  the  difficulties  too  great  in  the  beginning, 
we  seek  more  to  secure  perfect  forms  than  perfect  move- 
ments. As  soon  as  the  pen  is  taken,  however,  special 
attention  should  be  given  to  (1)  position  of  the  body, 
(2)  position  of  the  paper  or  book,  (3)  position  and 
movement  of  the  hand  and  arm. 

Different  positions  are  recommended  by  different 
teachers,  and  doubtless  each  has  its  advantages.  The 
following  positions  are  suggested  as  having  few  objec- 
tions and  as  being  useful  for  the  purpose  designed. 

It  should  be  said,  however,  that,  whether  these  or 
other  positions  are  taken,  there  should  be  uniformity 
throughout  the  course. 

The  face  nearly  front,  the  left  side  of  the  body  being 
slightly  turned  toward  the  desk ;  the  left  hand  above  or 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  paper  or  copy-book,  and  the 
body  slightly  bent;  the  paper  or  copy-book  in  an  ob- 
lique position  so  as  to  allow  room  for  the  right  forearm 
to  rest  upon  the  desk ;  the  pen  and  holder  held  between 
the  thumb  and  first  two  fingers  so  as  to  allow  the  freest 
movement  of  the  fingers,  the  holder  resting  upon  the 
forefinger  between  the  first  and  second  joints  and  point- 
ing nearly  over  the  right  shoulder;  the  wrist  slightly 
raised  from  the  desk,  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  rest- 
ing lightly  upon  the  paper.  These,  or  some  other 
equally  good  positions,  should  be  taught  at  the  beginning 
of  the  third  year  or  when  the  pen  is  first  taken,  and  the 
pupils  should  be  constantly  corrected  until  a  correct 
habit  is  established.  Some  teachers  find  the  tracing- 
book  helpful  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  pen-and-ink 


70  METHODS   OF   TEACHUSTG. 

practice,  or  while  the  pupils  are  learning  a  good  posi- 
tion and  movement  of  the  hand. 

Movements.  —  Movement  practice  should  be  begun  as 
soon  as  the  pen  is  taken,  and  continued  until  there  is  a 
free  and  easy  movement  of  the  fingers  and  arm.  In  the 
early  practice,  the  movements  should  be  made  with  a 
pencil  or  a  dry  pen.  First  show  by  example  what  the 
arm  movement  is,  and  have  the  pupils  practise  on  slides, 
with  the  fingers  fixed  and  in  a  good  position.  The 
slides  may  be  made  by  the  direction  "  forward  —  back," 
given  slowly.  After  some  facility  is  gained  in  this  sim- 
ple arm  movement  explain  as  before,  by  example,  the 
finger  movement,  and  have  the  pupils  practise  it,  first 
by  bending  and  straightening  the  fingers  without  touch- 
ing pencil  or  pen  to  paper.  Then  with  the  dry  pen 
upon  paper,  combine  the  slide  and  the  simple  up-and- 
down  finger  movement  in  the  following  exercise  :  — 


Give  slowly  the  direction  "slide  —  down,"  by  which 
the  movement  is  guided,  and  after  some  practice  let  the 
same  exercise  be  written  with  ink. 

To  secure  accuracy  of  finger  and  arm  movements, 
practice  in  parallel  lines,  both  curved  and  straight,  in  all 
directions,  will  be  found  useful.  These  and  other 
exercises  for  securing  freedom  and  accuracy  of  move- 
ment may  be  found  in  the  copy-books,  and  should  be 
practised  daily  for  the  first  two  or  three  years  after  ink 
is  taken,  or  until  the  pupils  can  write  easily  with  the 
combined  arm  and  finger  movement.     As  soon  as  the 


WRITING.  71 

pen  is  taken,  and  in  all  subsequent  writing,  care  should 
be  taken  to  have  the  pupils  hold  the  pen  very  lightly  in 
the  hand,  so  as  to  make  smooth  and  light  lines.  A 
firmer  grasp  may  be  allowed  for  pupils  who  have  an 
unsteady  hand,  bnt  even  these  should  be  encouraged  to 
hold  the  pen  lightly  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  write 
rapidly. 

Copy-Book.  —  In  addition  to  practice  in  writing  from 
copies  made  by  the  teacher,  and  in  connection  with  the 
language  lessons,  there  should  be  throughout  a  greater 
part  of  the  course,  copy-book  practice  at  least  three 
times  a  week.  The  copy  should  be  tano^ht  from  the 
blackboard  before  practice  is  begun,  each  principle  or 
letter  being  made  carefully,  and  the  correct  and  incor- 
rect forms  being  pointed  out.  Every  pupil  should  be 
provided  with  paper  or  blank-book  for  practice,  and 
when  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  is  attained,  the  letter, 
word,  or  sentence  may  be  written  in  the  copy-book.  In' 
using  the  copy-book,  lead  the  pupils  to  imitate  the  copy 
and  not  their  own  writing.  To  encourage  thoughtful- 
ness  and  care  in  imitating  the  copy,  it  may  be  well  to 
have  all  the  pupils  write  the  same  line  at  the  same  time, 
and  when  the  line  is  written,  to  compare  each  letter 
they  have  made  with  the  copy.  Sometimes  interest  is 
increased  by  criticising  each  other's  writing,  marking 
slightly  with  lead-pencil  the  errors. 

Special  and  separate  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
shape,  size,  slant,  distance  apart,  and  shade  of  letters. 
The  first  four  points  should  be  attended  to  from  the 
first.  The  shading  should  receive  no  attention  until 
tlie  jjupils  are  able  to  form  the  letters  and  join  them 
together  with    almost   perfect   accuracy.     Generally  it 


72  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

takes  two  years  of  practice  with  pen  and  ink  before  the 
pupils  are  ready  to  give  attention  to  shading. 

The  rule  in  regard  to  the  relative  height  of  letters 
may  be  understood  and  followed  by  pupils  as  early  as 
the  second  year  in  school.  During  the  first  four  years 
the  pupils  may  have  the  aid  of  spaced  lines  to  guide 
them  in  making  letters  of  proper  and  uniform  height. 
This  assistance  should  be  gradually  removed  until 
equally  good  work  is  done  without  the  lines. 

The  slant  should  be  about  fifty-two  degrees.  For 
board  and  slate  work,  the  proper  slant  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  drawing  a  parallelogram,  thus,  — 


four  parts  high,  three  parts  wide.  The  diagonal  ah 
will  be  nearly  the  proper  slant. 

The  proper  distancing  of  letters  and  the  proper  shad- 
ing can  be  gained  only  by  imitation  and  practice.  In- 
deed, this  is  true  of  all  good  writing.  Practice  in 
imitation  of  good  models  for  accuracy,  and  afterwards 
practice  for  rapidity,  should  be  encouraged  both  in  and 
out  of  school.  For  "■  home  study,"  practice  in  writing 
is  especially  useful,  as  no  possible  harm  can  be  done  by 
injudicious  assistance. 

Pupils  should  not  be  allowed  to  repeat  their  faults 
until  they  become  a  habit.  To  avoid  this  they  should 
be  led  to  observe  closely  coriect  forms  and  to  detect 
any  faulty  line  which  may  be  made.     First  present  a 


WRITING.  73 

correct  form  of  the  letter  upon  the  board  and  call  atten- 
tion to  the  position  or  direction  of  its  parts.  Then  ask 
one  or  more  of  the  pupils  to  make  the  same  letter  upon 
the  board  for  the  inspection  and  criticism  of  the  rest- 
In  this  way  they  will  be  prepared  to  criticise  and  cor- 
rect their  own  writing  in  the  copy-books. 

Rate.  —  In  all  the  writing  of  the  first  few  years,  let 
slowness  be  encouraged.  The  child  who  can  write 
slowly,  can  be  taught  to  write  well,  and  only  when  he 
can  form  every  letter  accurately  without  a  copy,  should 
rapidity  be  encouraged  or  allowed.  For  this  reason 
every  written  exercise,  whether  it  be  in  spelling,  lan- 
guage, copy-book,  or  examination,  should  be  an  exercise 
in  penmanship.  No  careless  writing  should  be  allowed 
to  remain  upon  the  slate,  and  all  carelessly  written  ex- 
ercises upon  paper  should  be  destroyed  and  rewritten, 
liy  the  fifth  or  sixth  year  in  school,  the  pupils,  if  they 
have  been  properly  taught  in  the  lower  grades,  should 
be  prepared  to  quicken  their  movements  in  writing. 
Practice  in  rapidity  may  be  had  first  upon  single  letters 
and  words,  and  afterwards  upon  sentences,  until  by  the 
eighth  year  the  pupils  will  be  able  not  only  to  write 
well  but  with  a  good  degree  of  rapidity. 

It  is  expected  that  book-keeping,  and  the  writing  of 
compositions  and  examination-papers,  will  afford  suffi- 
cient practice  for  writing  in  the  ninth  3'ear. 


74  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 


SPELLING. 

Objects.  —  In  teaching  spelling  we  have  to  lead  the 
pupils  to  arrange  in  proper  order  the  letters  of  a  word. 
In  addition  to  this,  other  forms  of  expression  should  be 
taught  incidentally,  as  use  of  capital  letters,  punctua- 
tion, possessive  forms,  common  contractions  and  abbie- 
viations,  division  into  syllables,  pronunciation  and  dia- 
critical marks. 

The  correct  form  of  words  is  learned  by  observation 
and  practice.  Accurate  habits  of  observation  should 
be  encouraged  as  early  as  possible,  and  opportunity 
given  for  much  practice  in  writing.  In  tlie  first  year 
there  should  be  daily  practice  in  copying  words  and 
sentences  from  tlie  board  and  from  cards.  In  the 
second  year,  and  afterwards,  there  may  be  some  prac- 
tice in  copying  from  the  reader.  Instead  of  allowing 
pupils  to  copy  by  writing  only  a  letter  or  two  after 
each  inspection  of  the  copy,  lead  them  to  get  an  accu- 
rate picture  of  one  or  more  words  before  writing. 
Write  a  word  or  sentence  upon  the  board,  ask  the 
children  to  look  at  it  carefully,  then  to  write  it  without 
looking  at  the  copy,  and  lastly  to  see  if  their  word  or 
sentence  is  written  correctly,  and,  if  not,  to  erase  and 
rewrite  it.  Lead  them  to  do  the  same  in  copying  from 
books. 

Study.  —  Pupils  should  be  taught  early  in  the  course 
how  to  study  a  spelling  lesson.  It  will  be  well  to  have 
the  spelling  lesson  copied  plainly  upon  the  board  by 
the  teacher,  and  when  the  time  for  studying  the  lesson 
comes,  to  have  the  pupils  copy  the  words  upon  their 


SPELLING.  75 

slates,  as  has  been  described.  Whenever  a  mistake  has 
been  made,  instead  of  having  them  erase  and  correct 
a  part  of  the  word,  have  them  erase  the  entire  word 
and  rewrite  it.  Some  practice  of  this  kind  under  the 
teacher's  direction  will  lead  the  pupils  to  form  in  the 
mind  correct  pictures  of  the  words  at  a  single  glance, 
and  enable  them  to  study  profitably  alone.  For  the 
younger  pupils,  draw  a  line  through  the  silent  letters, 
and  encourage  them  to  do  the  same  in  cojiying  and  in 
writing  from  dictation.  This  will  lead  them  to  notice 
the  silent  letters. 

Recitation.  —  The  spelling  lesson  may  be  recited 
orally  or  in  writing.  For  obvious  reasons,  the  writing 
of  words  is  far  more  useful  than  spelling  orally  by 
letter.  As  soon  as  the  pupils  can  write  without  copy, 
or  after  the  first  year,  the  woids  and  sentences  of  the 
spelling  lesson  should  be  written  from  dictation,  in 
books  provided  for  the  purpose.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  first  year,  spelling  "by  sound  "  and  by  letter  should 
be  practised.  In  the  second  and  third  years  there  may 
be  some  oral  spelling ;  but  generally  with  the  exception 
of  spelling  reviews  and  recreations,  the  lessons  should 
be  written. 

During  the  first  three  years  the  school  readers  may 
be  used  as  text-books  for  spelling.  Afterwards  regular 
spelling  text-books  should  be  used,  time  being  allowed 
for  practice  u})on  words  from  other  sources.  Sometimes 
the  si)elling  lesson  may  consist  of  the  words  misspelled 
in  the  written  examination  papers  and  compositions ; 
sometimes  the  technical  words  of  other  lessons  may  be 
given,  or  the  difficult  words  of  two  or  more  paragraphs 
of  tlie  reader,  or  a  review  of  the  difficult  common  words, 
such  as  the  following :  — 


76  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Knife,  money,  shoes,  ladies,  which,  whose,  where,  there,  their, 
piece,  would,  watch-chain,  lead-pencil,  window-curtain,  yours, 
comb,  crayon,  door-key,  floor,  believe,  guess,  through,  threw, 
dropped,  walked,  laughed,  aunt,  father,  ought,  ache,  dozen,  fruit, 
Wednesday,  beautiful,  flowers,  sugar,  color,  collar,  brother's,  baby's, 
whole,  pair,  eight,  half,  twelve,  tough,  button,  caught,  neighbor, 
minute. 

These  are  among  the  words  which  children  should 
write  correctly  in  sentences  before  they  leave  the  pri- 
mary school ;  but  it  will  be  found  that  not  all  grammar 
school  pupils  will  be  able  to  write  even  half  of  them 
correctly,  without  being  reviewed. 

The  Avords  and  sentences  should  be  generally  dictated 
by  the  teacher,  aiid,  if  possible,  but  once.  In  this  way 
the  power  of  attention  is  cultivated,  and  time  is  saved. 
In  giving  out  words  to  spell  it  is  well  sometimes  for 
the  teacher  or  the  pupils  to  give  a  sentence  containing 
each  word  or,  in  the  higher  grades,  to  give  synonyms  or 
definitions.  Sometimes  it  may  be  well  for  the  pupils  to 
give  out  the  words  of  a  lesson  from  memory ;  but  no 
word  should  be  spelled  whose  use  or  meaning  is  not 
understood. 

All  misspelled  words  should  be  rewritten  correctly 
and  reviewed  frequently.  The  lessons  should  be  of 
varied  length,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the 
words.  Sometimes  a  long  lesson  of  easy  words  or  of 
words  spelled  alike  may  be  assigned  ;  in  which  case  the 
hardest  words  of  the  lesson  only  will  be  given  out.  In 
no  case  should  haste  or  carelessness  in  writing  be  al- 
lowed. 

Derivations,  synonyms,  and  definitions  should  be 
learned  in  connection  with  the  spelling  lesson  in  the 
higher  grades,  and  may  be  recited  at  the  time  of,  or 


SPELLING.  77 

after  dictation  of  the  words.  In  these  classes  the  dic- 
tionary should  be  in  constant  use  by  the  pupils.  Small 
dictionaries  in  the  desks  of  older  pupils,  and  one  large 
dictionary  for  reference,  on  the  teacher's  table,  will  De 
found  necessary  for  the  preparation  of  reading  and  spell- 
ing lessons. 

Homonyms  in  sentences  should  be  frequently  given, 
and  in  the  higher  grades,  words  derived  from  the  same 
root  should  be  selected  and  explained.  The  force  of  the 
various  prefixes  and  suffixes  may  also  be  taught  in  the 
same  way.  Syllabication  should  be  taught  in  connec- 
tion with  the  regular  spelling  lesson,  the  syllables  being 
separated  by  short  s^mces  and  not  by  hyphens.  In  oral 
spelling  the  syllables  may  be  indicated  by  slight  pauses, 
without  pronouncing  each  syllable. 

Rules.  —  It  is  not  well  to  burden  the  pupil  with 
many  rules  for  spelling,  the  exceptions  being  frequently 
so  numerous  as  to  defeat  the  end  sought.  Yet  there 
are  some  rules  which  may  be  })rofitably  learned;  as,  for 
example,  the  rules  for  joining  suffixes  to  words  ending 
in  y  and  e^  and  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  plural  of 
nouns.  These,  and  other  rules  which  have  few  excep- 
tions, may  be  of  some  assistance. 

Methods  of  Examining  and  Correcting.  —  In  small 
classes,  and  with  young  pupils,  the  teacher  should 
examine  and  correct  each  slate  or  paper.  Pupils  may 
be  allowed  to  correct  their  own  exercises,  rewriting  the 
misspelled  words  upon  a  separate  paper.  Or  pupils 
may  exchange  slates  or  papers,  and  examine  each 
other's  exercise,  the  right  of  appeal  being  allowed  when 
the  exercise  is  returned.  Instead  of  slate  or  paper,  it 
would  be  well  to  have  each  pupil  provided  with  a  spell- 


78  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

ing  blank-book.  From  the  lists  of  misspelled  words  the 
teacher  should  occasionally  prepare  review  lessons. 

To  avoid  temptation,  which  might  exist  if  the  papers 
were  examined  by  the  same  pupils  every  day,  or  if  the 
pupils  simply  exchanged  their  papers,  it  is  well  to  have 
two  or  three  different  directions  for  passing  the  papers 
to  be  examined.  At  the  proper  time  the  teacher  may 
say,  "pass  back,"  "front,"  "to  the  left,"  or  "to  the 
right."  If  the  order  to  "pass  front"  is  given,  the  pu- 
pils in  front  will  immediately  stand  and  pass  their  books 
to  the  pupils  in  the  rear.  All  the  rest  will  pass  their 
books  to  the  pupils  directly  in  front  of  them.  If  the 
order  to  "  pass  back "  is  given,  the  pupils  in  the  rear 
will  carry  their  papers  to  the  front,  and  all  the  rest  will 
pass  their  papers  to  the  pupils  behind  them. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  the  pupils  write  the  lessons 
with  pen  and  ink,  and  to  mark  misspelled  words  with 
a  lead-pencil.  The  books  should  occasionally  be  col- 
lected and  passed  to  the  teacher  for  inspection. 

Reviews  and  Recreations.  —  Oral  review  lessons  by 
"  spelling  down  "  and  choosing  sides  will  be  found  to 
be  valuable  aids.  A  choice  of  sides  to  continue  for  a 
month  or  term  has  been  found  to  stimulate  the  efforts 
of  some  pupils.  When  a  class  becomes  indifferent,  or 
consists  of  many  poor  spellers,  let  two  of  the  best 
spellers  choose  sides,  —  the  side  which  misspells  the 
fewest  words  in  the  month  to  have  some  privilege  or 
mark  of  honor.  If  carried  on  in  the  right  way,  great 
interest  will  be  manifested,  the  better  spellers  "spell- 
ing "  the  poorer  spellers  out  of  school  hours,  and  the 
poor  spellers  making  greater  effort. 

Occasionally  the   "word    game"  may   be   played,  in 


SPELLING.  79 

which  words  are  made  up  from  the  letters  of  a  given 
word.  For  example,  from  the  word  Congregational  the 
pupils  may  be  asked  first  to  make  as  many  words  as 
they  can  beginning  with  c,  and  using  any  letters  found 
in  the  given  word.  After  three  or  five  minutes'  trial, 
the  same  may  be  done  beginning  with  o,  and  so  on. 


80  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


LANGUAGE. 

The  term  Language  may  be  used  in  different  ways. 
As  a  faculty  of  the  mind,  it  is  the  association  of  ideas 
with  their  proper  signs.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  expression  of  ideas  and  thoughts,  generally  by 
words  and  propositions,  spoken  or  written.  By  the 
study  of  language  the  power  of  association  is  cultivated 
and  the  ability  is  acquired  of  expressing  ideas  and 
thoughts  correctly  and  easily,  both  in  speaking  and  in 
writing.  In  its  widest  application,  language  as  a 
branch  of  study  includes  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
grammar,  and  expression  or  composition.  As  generally 
used,  however,  the  term  is  applied  to  the  last-named 
subject,  or  that  study  which  has  for  its  object  an  easy 
and  correct  expression  of  ideas  and  thoughts.  Such  a 
study  is  elementary  in  character  and  precedes  the  study 
of  grammar,  which  is  scientific. 

Objects.  —  The  two  chief  ends  to  be  sought  in  ele- 
mentary language  work  are  correctness  and  fluency. 
Correctness  of  spoken  language  consists  in  correct  pro- 
nunciation, in  the  use  of  correct  words,  both  in  kind 
and  construction,  and  in  having  the  words  of  a  sentence 
follow  each  other  in  proper  order.  Correctness  of 
written  language,  in  addition  to  the  last  two  features, 
consists  in  correct  spelling,  punctuation,  and  capitaliza- 
tion. 

In  securing  fluency  of  expression,  it  should  be  the 
aim  of  the  teacher,  first,  to  see  that  the  pupils  have 
right  and  useful  thoughts  to  express ;  secondly,  to  see 
that  the  thoughts  are  clear  and  distinct ;  and  thirdly,  to 


LANGUAGE.  81 

see   that   the    expression    is   direct,    simple,    free,   and 
natural. 

Means.  —  Regular  Studies. — All  of  the  objects  named 
cannot  be  attained  by  attending  to  expression  merely. 
Without  clear  and  distinct  thoughts  of  a  useful  kind, 
there  can  be  no  good  expression ;  and  without  proper 
expression,  the  thoughts  are  likely  to  be  indistinct  and 
fleeting.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  language  cul- 
ture should  be  an  essential  feature  of  all  the  regular  ' 
studies  of  the  school.  Every  fact  observed  and  every 
thought  acquired  should  be  expressed  in  language  clear,  ' 
accurate,  and  original. 

Imitation.  —  First  among  the  most  effective  means 
of  acquiring  correct  expression  is  imitation  of  good 
models.  Every  one  knows  by  experience  and  by  ob- 
servation how  much  good  language  depends  upon  early 
influences.  No  amount  of  study  in  school  will  entirely 
overcome  a  habit  of  using  incorrect  language  which  has 
been  acquired  in  early  life.  The  importance,  therefore, 
of  correct  speech  in  the  schoolroom  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. The  teacher  should  carefully  guard  himself 
against  the  use  of  language  which  would  not  be  regarded 
as  a  model  of  excellence  for  his  pupils  to  imitate. 

Correction.  —  In  all  the  exercises  of  the  school,  both 
teacher  and  pupils  should  be  ready  to  correct  every  in- 
correct expression  which  is  made.  If  this  is  done  con- 
stantly, and  the  correct  forms  are  written  out  and 
frequently  reviewed,  much  will  be  done  to  overcome  the 
influence  of  poor  models  in  the  home  and  on  the  street. 
It  is  not  necessary,  nor  is  it  well,  to  interrupt  the 
thought  of  a  pupil  in  the  midst  of  a  statement  by 
the  correction  of  mistakes.     When    the  pupil  has  fin- 


82  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

ished  what  he  has  to  say,  mistakes  may  be  pointed  out 
and  the  proper  corrections  made. 

Oopying.  —  Constantly  during  the  first  year,  and 
occasional!}^  afterwards,  the  copying  of  sentences  and 
words  from  accurately  written  copies  should  be  prac- 
tised. The  copies  may  be  on  the  blackboard,  paper,  or 
cardboard,  and  should  always  be  most  carefully  written. 
No  poorly  or  carelessly  written  copies  should  ever  be 
placed  before  the  children,  and  care  should  be  taken 
that  habits  of  writing  slowly  and  carefully  are  formed 
from  the  first. 

After  the  first  year,  or  as  soon  as  the  child  can  form 
letters  correctly  without  a  copy,  copying  from  the  read- 
ing-book may  be  practised,  both  for  the  purpose  of  learn- 
ing the  use  of  capital  letters,  marks  of  punctuation,  etc., 
and  for  securing  greater  familiarity  with  the  words.  If 
the  pupils  are  properly  directed,  a  habit  of  attention  and 
of  picturing  in  the  mind,  words  and  groups  of  words, 
is  also  gained  by  this  exercise.  Lead  the  pupils  to 
look  carefully  to  the  words  of  a  phrase  or  sentence  be- 
fore they  write  it.  After  the  copy  is  made,  ask  them  to 
see  whether  they  have  copied  the  words  correctly  in  all 
particulars.  If  any  mistake  has  been  made,  have  them 
erase  what  has  been  written  and  try  again.  After  a 
time  good  habits  of  attention  will  be  formed,  and  the 
copying  may  be  done  in  study  time.  Unless  care  is 
taken,  pupils,  even  in  the  higher  grades,  will  be  found 
stopping  in  the  middle  of  words  to  look  at  the  copy, 
thus  forming  thoughtless  and  mechanical  habits. 

Object  Lessons.  —  The  first  essential  for  correct  ex- 
pression is  the  possession  of  clear  ideas,  and  these  are 
best  received  through,  or  by  means  of  observation  les- 


LANGUAGE.  83 

sons.  Whenever  in  such  lessons  an  idea  or  thought  is 
developed,  it  should  find  expression  first  orally  and 
afterwards  in  writing.  After  the  object  lesson  is  com- 
pleted, the  various  statements  which  the  pupil  has 
made  should  be  brought  together  in  proper  form.  For 
example,  when  the  shape  and  color  of  an  envelope  have 
been  taught  and  named,  the  statement  may  be,  "  The 
shape  of  this  envelope  is  oblong,  and  its  color  is  buff." 
Or  when  a  lesson  upon  a  plant  is  given,  the  name  and 
description  of  the  different  parts  may  be  made  as  soon 
as  they  are  observed.  Afterwards  these  facts  should  be 
brought  together  so  as  to  make  a  connected  statement 
of  what  has  been  learned.  If  there  is  not  time  to 
do  this  in  the  time  allotted  for  the  observation 
lesson,  let  it  be  done  as  a  part  of  the  next  lesson  in 
language. 

Further  suggestions  will  be  found  in  connection  with 
what  is  said  upon  observation  lessons. 

Actions.  —  One  form  of  object  lessons  of  interest  and 
value  to  young  children,  especially  for  the  purpose  of 
expression,  is  actions.  The  teacher  may  do  something, 
as  walk  across  the  floor,  and  then  ask  his  pupils  to  tell 
orally  in  an  entire  sentence  what  he  did,  and  afterwards 
to  write  the  sentence.  Thus  a  simple  act,  or  several  acts 
in  succession,  may  be  described,  the  number  and  com- 
plexity of  them  depending  upon  the  ability  of  the 
pupils.  By  this  means,  the  spelling  of  many  common, 
difficult  words  may  be  taught,  as  well  as  the  use  of  capi- 
tal letters  and  marks  of  punctuation. 

The  following  sentences  will  suggest  to  teachers 
what  actions  may  be  described  in  the  various  grades  :  — 


84  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

John  rang  the  bell. 

You  walked  across  the  room. 

You  placed  two  pencils  on  the  desk. 

You  picked  two  petals  from  the  flower. 

I  heard  you  stamp  your  foot  twice. 

Mary  passed  her  knife  to  Julia. 

Thomas  raised  the  window-sash. 

Did  you  shut  the  door? 

You  dropped  your  handkerchief  on  the  floor. 

You  put  John's  hat  on  the  desk. 

John  and  William  put  their  hats  on  their  heads. 

William,  James,  and  Sarah  went  to  the  teacher's  desk. 

You  threw  a  ball  into  the  air  and  caught  it  when  it  came  down. 

Thomas  went  to  the  wash-basin,  wet  his  sponge,  and  returned 
to  his  seat. 

James  went  to  the  teacher's  desk,  took  from  it  all  of  the  pupils' 
writing-books,  and  distributed  them  to  their  owners.  He  then  went 
to  his  seat  and  began  to  study  his  geography  lesson. 

Use  of  Pictures.  —  Next  to  the  objects  themselves, 
pictures  are  most  valuable  in  exciting  ideas  and 
thoughts,  and  are  therefore  useful  as  a  means  of  lan- 
guage study.  They  may  be  used  as  objects  are  used 
when  a  descrij)tion  of  what  is  seen  is  called  for,  or  they 
may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  imaginary  stories. 

In  describing  the  parts  of  a  picture,  young  children 
will  need  special  assistance  and  direction  from  the 
teacher.  Place  a  large,  interesting  picture  —  not  too 
complex  at  first  —  before  the  class  or  school,  and  ques- 
tion somewhat  as  follows  :  — 

"  How  many  boys  are  there  in  the  picture  ?  "  ''  What 
are  they  doing?"  "What  animal  is  following  on  be- 
hind ?  "  "  What  kind  of  dog  is  it  ?  "  "  What  is  one 
of  the  cows  doing  ?  "  The  answers  should  be  in  entire 
sentences,  and  should  afterwards  be  written  out  connec- 


LANGUAGE.  85 

tedly  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  After  some 
practice  of  this  kind  the  pupils  may  be  able,  without 
much  assistance  from  the  teacher,  to  state  in  full  all 
they  can  see  in  a  given  picture.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  description  does  not  consist  of  short  statements, 
poorly  arranged  or  connected  together  by  many  "  and's." 
The  final  description  of  the  picture  suggested  above 
might  be  as  follows  :  — 

"  I  see  two  boys  driving  some  cows.  One  of  the 
cows  is  eating  grass  by  the  side  of  the  road,  and  one  is 
going  into  a  field.  A  large  shepherd  dog  is  running 
behind  the  boys." 

Another  scarcely  less  valuable  use  of  pictures  in 
teaching  language  is  to  suggest  imaginary  stories  to 
be  told  by  the  pupils.  The  pictures  used  for  young 
children  should  be  simple  and  somewhat  striking.  By 
presenting  a  good  plan  or  by  asking  questions,  lead  the 
pupils  gradually  into  good  habits  of  thought  and  con- 
struction. With  the  picture  above  indicated  the  ques- 
tions might  be  somewhat  as  follows :  What  shall  we 
call  the  boys  ?  Where  do  they  live  ?  Do  both  live  on 
the  farm  ?  Which  one  is  the  visitor  from  the  city  ? 
What  relation  are  they  to  each  other  ?  Who  came  with 
Charlie  to  the  country  ?  What  are  they  doing  ?  What 
else  do  they  do  on  the  farm  ?  etc.  After  questioning, 
the  story  may  be  told  orally  by  one  or  more  of  the  pupils, 
and  afterwards  written  out  in  full.  Older  pupils  may 
be  able  to  write  the  story  out  in  full  after  a  given  plan, 
without  preliminary  questioning  or  without  first  telling 
it  orally.  The  correction  and  revision  of  the  papers 
may  be  made  during  the  time  of  a  regular  recitation,  or 
may  be  given  out  as  a  language  lesson.     Encourage  as 


86  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

far  as  possible  independence  and  originality  of  expres- 
sion. 

Dictation.  —  In  every  grade  after  the  first,  exercises 
in  dictation  should  be  given.  Avoid  the  mistake  of 
repeating  the  phrase  or  sentence  so  often  as  to  make 
the  exercise  of  writing  mechanical.  The  giving  out 
of  a  short  sentence  once,  with  possibly  one  repetition 
for  younger  pupils,  should  be  enough.  Long  sentences 
may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times. 

The  chief  value  of  the  dictation  exercise  lies  in  the 
correction  of  papers  by  the  pupils.  Read,  letter  by  letter, 
the  sentences,  or  place  upon  the  blackboard  the  correct 
form,  asking  them  to  place  a  cross  above  each  mistake. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  select  sentences  for  dictation 
which  will  involve  practice  in  all  marks  of  punctuation, 
capital  letters,  and  the  spelling  of  difficult  common 
words.  The  use  and  spelling  of  words  pronounced 
alike  but  spelled  differently  may  also  be  taught  in  this 
way.  The  following  sentences  will  indicate  the  kind  of 
dictation  exercises  which  may  be  given  during  the  sec- 
ond, third,  and  fourth  years  in  school :  — 

The  book  is  very  large. 

I  have  two  cents  in  my  pocket. 

Where  is  your  slate  ? 

There  are  eight  boys  in  my  class. 

Which  book  shall  I  take  ? 

Mary's  doll  is  very  pretty. 

The  man  ate  four  pieces  of  bread  ? 

Where  did  you  put  my  penknife  ? 

Are  you  sure  that  you  heard  me  speak  ? 

Many  girls  wear  their  hair  too  short  to  curl. 

I  was  very  weak  last  week. 

Wait  a  moment,  and  I  will  tell  you  the  weight  of  the  sugax. 


LAi4GUA(iE.  87 

Col.  and  Mrs.  Smith  called  to  see  us  last  evening. 

This  is day  of ,  188-. 

Never  separate  the  letters  of  a  syllable  by  a  hyphen. 
There  are  sixty  minutes  in  an  hour,  twenty-four  hours  in  a  day, 
seven  days  in  a  week,  and  fifty-two  weeks  in  a  year. 

"Where  did  you  buy  those  oranges?"  asked  William. 
'*  I  bought  them  at  Mr.  Robinson's  grocery  store,  and  I  paid  two 
cents  apiece  for  them,"  replied  John. 

Oh,  what  a  great  piece  of  maple  sugar- you  have! 
I  buy  all  my  stationery  at  Lee  and  Shepard's. 
I  have  a  Worcester's  and  a  Webster's  dictionary. 

Information  Lessons.  —  It  is  very  important  that  facts 
learned  in  connection  Avith  the  information  lessons  be 
fixed  in  the  mind  by  talking  and  writing.  Correctness 
and  ease  of  expression  are  also  gained  by  such  practice, 
and  a  good  opportunity  is  afforded  to  teach  a  proper 
combination  and  arrangement  of  short  statements. 
After  an  information  lesson  has  been  given,  the  cus- 
tom should  be  to  talk  and  write  about  what  has  been 
learned.  The  statements  may  first  be  given  in  answer 
to  definite  questions,  and  then  they  may  be  combined 
in  proper  order  and  connection ;  or  the  lessons  may  be 
presented  by  topics,  which  can  afterwards  be  brought 
together  in  connected  statements.  One  method  is  best 
suited  to  younger  pupils,  the  other  to  older  pupils. 
Occasionally  the  description  may  be  given  without 
preliminary  questioning  or  topical  arrangement. 

Story-Telling  and  Sight-Reading.  —  Every  teacher  of 
young  children  should  know  how  to  tell  stories,  partly 
for  the  sake  of  interesting  and  instructing  the  children, 
and  partly  for  the  sake  of  furnishing  material  for  lan- 
guage lessons.  A  well-told  story  serves  as  a  model  for 
the  pupils,  which  they  will  unconsciously  imitate.    More 


88  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

direct  help  to  a  correct  and  easy  expression  may  be 
given  if,  when  the  story  is  told,  the  pupils  are  asked  to 
reproduce  the  principal  points  of  it  in  their  own  words. 
Let  the  story  be  such  as  will  interest  the  children,  and 
teach  a  useful  lesson  without  bringing  out  the  moral 
too  plainly. 

If  the  teacher  has  not  the  art  of  telling  stories,  he 
may  read  from  a  book  such  stories  as  the  children  have 
not  seen.  Better  than  this,  however,  is  reading  at  sight 
by  the  children.  If  they  know  that  such  reading  will 
be  followed  by  a  reproduction  of  the  thought  expressed, 
their  interest  in  and  attention  to  what  is  read  will  be 
increased,  and  a  greater  number  of  ideas  will  be  gained. 
The  same  course  in  respect  to  talking  and  writing 
should  be  pursued,  and  the  same  cautions  in  respect  to 
combination  should  be  observed,  as  have  been  spoken 
of  before.  In  the  lower  grades  the  subject-matter  may 
be  brought  out  by  skilful  questioning.  When  this  is 
done,  the  children  should  be  encouraged  to  give  the 
story  in  a  connected  form,  and  always  in  their  own  lan- 
guage. Unless  care  is  taken,  they  will  seek  to  remem- 
ber words  only,  and  give  the  language  of  the  book.  In 
the  higher  grades,  with  little  or  no  questioning  the  pu- 
pils should  be  able  to  give  the  substance  of  the  article 
read,  first  orally  and  then  in  writing.  The  written  work 
should  be  carefully  examined,  corrected,  and  rewritten. 
One  of  the  most  common  faults  is  the  making  of  short 
and  disconnected  sentences,  —  a  fault  which  is  allow- 
able with  beginners,  but  which  should  be  corrected  as 
soon  as  possible.  Let  the  sentences  be  made  so  as 
to  read  smoothly  and  pleasantly,  without  many  breaks 
and  without  tlie  use  of  too  many  connectives. 


LANGUAGE.  89 

Paraphrasing. — In  connection  with  the  reading,  the 
higher-grade  pupils  may  with  profit  occasionally  write 
out  the  substance  of  a  difficult  piece  of  prose  or  poetry. 
It  will  not  be  necessary  to  rely  upon  the  memory  to  do 
this,  but,  with  the  book  before  the  pupil,  he  may  freely 
translate  the  essay  or  poem,  being  more  careful  to  pre- 
serve its  sense  than  its  letter.  Besides  directly  assist- 
ing him  in  composition,  such  an  exercise  will  lead 
him  to  understand  many  expressions  which  he  might 
otherwise  pass  by. 

Letter-Writing.  —  The  writing  of  letters  of  one  form 
or  another  should  occupy  the  attention  of  all  grades  of 
pupils.  The  proper  form  of  dating,  addressing,  sub- 
scribing, folding,  and  directing  letters  should  be  taught 
as  early  as  possible,  and  afterwards  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  body  of  the  letter.  The  good  letter-writer, 
like  the  good  talker,  has  something  to  say,  and  says  it 
in  a  direct  and  natural  way.  At  first  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  give  to  the  children  some  hints  of  what  they 
should  say  in  a  letter.  For  example,  the  teacher  may 
say,  "  Suppose  you  write  a  letter  inviting  your  cousin, 
whom  you  may  call  John  or  Mary,  to  come  to  see  you 
for  a  week  during  your  next  vacation.  Tell  him  or  her 
when  your  vacation  is,  and  then  what  you  could  do 
to  entertain  yourselves."  Similar  directions  may  have 
to  be  given  to  the  children  in  the  second  or  third  year 
in  school ;  but  as  soon  as  may  be,  lead  the  children  to 
compose  their  letters  without  help ;  encourage  in  all 
possible  ways  originality  of  thought  and  naturalness  of 
expression.  Imaginary  journeys  and  visits  may  be 
described  in  letters  to  friends  at  hcnne,  thus  bringing 
in  what   has  been  learne-d  in  geography  and  history. 


90  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Letters  descriptive  of  familiar  scenes  may  be  written 
to  distant  friends,  and  the  story  of  their  own  experi- 
ence in  vacation  time  be  given  in  familiar  letters  to 
each  other.  In  these  and  other  ways  the  teacher  will 
encourage  the  pupils  to  write  good,  naturally  expressed, 
and  original  letters,  being  careful  not  to  tell  too  much 
on  the  one  hand,  and  not  to  discourage  by,  too  little 
assistance  on  the  other. 

In  addition  to  letters  of  friendship,  pupils  in  the 
higher  grades  should  give  attention  to  writing  business 
letters  of  all  kinds.  Ask  your  pupils  to  write  letters 
applying  for  board  or  a  situation,  or  giving  an  order  for 
goods.  Cut  out  advertisements  from  the  column  of 
"  wants,"  and  give  one  to  each  pupil  to  answer  in  a 
proper  way. 

Business  Forms  mid  Notices.  —  Before  leaving  school, 
pupils  should  be  able  to  write  in  proper  form  ordinary 
business  papers,  such  as  notes,  receipts,  orders,  bills,  and 
notices  of  all  kinds.  Let  them  practise  in  writing  no- 
tices advertising  a  lecture  or  a  concert,  an  auction  sale, 
or  a  private  sale  of  goods  of  any  kind,  the  loss  of  a  dog 
or  the  finding  of  a  pocket-book.  For  practice  in  con- 
densation, the  writing  of  telegrams  is  useful,  in  which 
the  most  is  to  be  said  in  the  fewest  words. 

The  composing  of  items  of  news  for  the  newspaper 
is  both  interesting  and  instructive  practice.  It  may  do 
no  harm  to  have  the  pupils  sometimes  see  the  result  of 
their  efforts  in  print.  A  fire  or  an  accident,  or  any  other 
event  which  has  occurred  in  the  neighborhood,  may  be 
described  by  the  pupils,  with  the  understanding  that 
the  best  description  will  be  sent  to  the  local  newspaper 
for  insertion.      They  should   be  taught  that   a  plain, 


LANGUAGE.  91 

direct  statement  of  facts  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  ex- 
travagant expressions  which  are  so  frequently  found  in 
newspapers. 

Elliptical  Sentences.  —  The  supplying  of  ellipses  is 
good  practice,  especially  in  learning  the  proper  word 
and  correct  forms  of  words  to  be  used.  The  distinc- 
tion in  the  use  of  such  words  as  may  and  can,  tvould 
and  should,  lie  and  lay,  sit  and  set,  in  and  into,  invent 
and  discover,  between  and  ainong,  beside  and  besides,  alone 
and  only,  remember  and  recollect,  ago  and  since,  like  and 
as,  may  be  learned  in  this  way.  The  correct  use  of  the 
words  should  first  be  taught,  and  afterwards  exercises 
like  the  following  may  be  given  :  — 

I  go tlie  recitation  room  to  get  my  book  ? 

he  lift  the  stone  ? 

I  now on  the  lounge. 

Yesterday  I on  the  lounge. 

T the  books  on  the  table. 

The  books on  the  table. 

Come  and by  me  while  I  read  to  you. 

the  pitcher  on  the  table. 

He  went the  house. 

The  same  method  of  teaching  the  correct  forms  of 
words  may  be  found  useful,  as  illustrated  in  the 
following :  — 

John  and  Mary in  school. 

One  of  the  boys ill. 

They  sent  Mary  and to  school. 

John  is  taller  than . 

do  you  wish  to  see  ? 

Who  borrowed  my  pencil?    . 

Which  is  the of  the  two  ? 

Neither  James John ready  to  recite lesson. 

These  are '  bonnets. 


92 


METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


Compositions.  —  In  addition  to  the  daily  practice  in 
language  work,  such  as  has  been  indicated,  the  older 
pupils  should  be  expected  as  often  as  once  a  month  to 
write  a  composition  upon  a  given  subject.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  select  subjects  about  which  the  pupils  know 
something,  or  which  are  within  their  comprehension. 
Dislike  to  composition-writing  is  generally  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  pupils  are  called  upon  to  give  expression 
to  ideas  which  do  not  exist  in  their  minds.  The  aver- 
age school  boy  or  girl  has  very  dim  ideas,  or  no  ideas  at 
all,  of  such  abstract  subjects  as  hope,  beauty,  and  perse- 
verance, and  it  is  no  wonder  that  discouragement  and 
disgust  follow  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  write  upon 
them.  When  we  remember  that  the  greatest  writers 
have  chosen  for  their  themes  the  simplest  subjects,  we 
can  hardly  make  the  mistake  of  giving  too  simple  topics 
for  our  children  to  write  upon. 

The  following  list  of  subjects  will  be  found  suggestive 
of  what  may  be  given  to  older  pupils  of  the  grammar 
grade :  — ■ 


My  home. 

My  grandfather's  farm. 

The  town  in  which  I  live. 

Our  school. 

Trees. 

The  coffee  plant. 

A  picnic  excursion. 

A  sleigh-ride. 

A  visit  to  the  country. 

A  visit  to  the  city. 

A  visit  to  Mammoth  Cave. 

How  I  spent  my  last  vacation. 

A  journey  to  England. 


A  letter  from  Eg)-pt. 

Our  baby. 

George  Washington. 

Abraham  Lincoln. 

William  E.  Gladstone. 

Joan  of  Arc. 

The  reminiscences  of  an  old 
tree. 

Autobiography  of  a  cent. 

History  of  a  loaf  of  bread. 

The  old  horse's  story. 

What  my  dog  would  say  if  he 
could  talk. 


LANGUAGE.  93 


Good  luanners. 
"  A  rolling  stone  gathers   no 
moss." 

"  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters." 
Intemperance. 
Cruelty  to  animals. 
A  hundred  years  ago. 


A  tramp's  diary. 
Six  reasons  why  a  boy  should 
not  smoke. 
How  a  shoe  is  made. 
How  a  barrel  is  made. 
A  visit  to  a  paper-mill. 
A  visit  to  a  hospital. 
A  visit  to  a  prison. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  grammar-school  course, 
pupils  should  learn  to  separate  their  compositions  into 
paragraphs.  They  may  receive  some  assistance  in  this 
direction,  by  studying  carefully  the  paragraphing  of 
prose  in  their  histories  and  reading-books. 

Outlines.  —  All  original  written  work  should  be  done 
according  to  some  definite  plan.  At  first  the  plan  or 
outline  may  be  provided  by  the  teacher.  By  degrees, 
however,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  make  their  own 
outlines,  which  should  be  submitted  to  the  teacher  for 
approval  and  correction.  For  the  younger  pupils  the 
outlines  should  be  very  simple,  scarcely  more  in  some 
cases  than  two  or  three  questions  to  be  answered  in  en- 
tire sentences ;  as,  for  example,  in  describing  an  object 
the  teacher  may  say:  What  are  the  parts?  What  is  the 
shape  of  each  part  ?  What  is  the  use  of  each  part  ? 
Or  in  writing  upon  any  material,  as  wood  or  paper, 
the  pupils  may  answer  the  questions :  Where  obtained  ? 
How  prepared?     For  what  used?    Varieties? 

In  giving  an  object  lesson,  the  teacher  or  one  of  the 
pujiils  should  write  upon  the  blackboard  the  principal 
facts  as  they  are  discovered.  These  statements  will 
constitute  material  out  of  which  the  composition  may  be 
written.  Frequently  it  is  well  for  the  pupils  to  analyze 
a  short  sketch  for  the  purpose  of  making  an  outline. 


94 


METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


The  following  outlines  will  suggest  to  teachers  what 
may  be  given  to,  and  required  from  pupils  as  a  guide 
to  their  writing  upon  simple  subjects:  — 


Any  natural  produc- 
tion (as  salt)    .     . 


Any    manufactured 
article  (as  glass) 


1.  Qualities. 

2.  Uses. 

3.  Where,  when,  and  how  obtained. 

'  1.  Qualities. 

2.  Uses. 

3.  Kinds. 


Biography 


Any  plant 


a.  Materials. 
^  4.  How  made  I  b.  ^V' here  procured, 


fa.  Materi 
b.  Where 
c.  Order  of  manufacture. 


r  1.  Size  and  covering. 
1  ra.  Name. 

Any  animal    .     .     .  ^  2.  Parts  \  h.  Description. 

Ic.  Uses. 
3.  Habits. 


1.  Time  of  birth. 

2.  Circumstances  of  parents. 

3.  Events  of  boyhood  or  girlhood. 

4.  Education. 

.5.  Subsequent  events  in  order  of  occurrence. 

.  6.  Leading  traits  of  character. 

'  1.  Name  and  general  appearance. 

2.  Parts: 

a.  Root 
h.  Stem 

c.  Leaves 

d.  Flowers 

e.  Fruit 

3.  Uses. 

4.  Where  found 


>  Describe  each. 


LANGUAGE. 


95 


Places  seen  .     .  < 


1.  Location. 

2.  Surroundings. 

3.  Parts  or  divisions. 

4.  What  is  contained  or  produced. 

5.  Objects  of  interest. 
.  6.  Reminiscences. 


A  journey  (real 
or  imaginary) 


'  1.  Time  and  place  of  starting. 

2.  Intended  destination. 

3.  The  route  taken. 

4.  !Mode  of  travelling. 

\  5.  Description  of  country. 

6.  Objects  of  interest  on  the  way. 

7.  Description  of  place  visited. 

8.  Manners  and  customs  of  people. 

9.  Incidents  and  anecdotes. 


It  is  well  sometimes  to  give  in  the  outlines  some  topics 
which  will  stimulate  thought  and  investigation.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  information  furnished  be  not 
too  extended.  The  following  outline  ^  is  an  example  of 
what  may  be  given  to  pupils  in  advanced  and  grammar 
grades :  — 

WINDS. 

1.  Beneficial  on  land,  as  they  — 

a.  Carry  moistui'e.     Where  from? 

h.  Equalize  the  temperature.     How  ? 

c.  Purify  the  air.     How  ?     Name  places  benefited. 

rZ.  Carry  seed.     What  kinds?     How  a  benefit? 

e.  Pump  water  and  grind  flour.     How  and  where? 

2.  Beneficial  on  the  sea,  as  they  — 

a.  Aid  in  navigation.     How? 

b.  Produce  ocean  currents.     How  ?    Value  of  the  currents  ? 

3.  Injuries  on  land  by  — 

a.  Hurricanes.     Illustrate. 
h.  Carrying  seed.     Illustrate. 

c.  Spreading  diseases.     Explain  how. 

'  From  Intelligence,  Chicago. 


96  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

4.  Injuries  on  the  sea  by  — 

a.  Cyclones,  etc. 

b.  Hindering  navigation.     How  ? 

A  few  pointed,  suggestive  questions  upon  a  subject 
when  it  is  assigned,  often  give  direction  and  method  to 
the  work  of  the  pupils ;  as,  — 

RAILROADS. 

1.  When  first  built  and  where  ? 

2.  How  do  they  benefit  western  farmers  and  eastern  manufac- 
turers in  our  country  ? 

3.  How  do  they  aid  the  poor? 

4.  How  do  they  promote  the  settlement  of  new  countries  ? 

5.  Do  they  aftect  the  value  of  the  land  ? 

6.  Illustrate  their  value  in  carrying  news,  merchandise,  and 
people. 

Correction  of  False  Syntax.  —  Mention  has  been  made 
of  the  desirability  of  correcting  mistakes  as  they  occur. 
These  mistakes,  and  .others  which  are  most  frequently 
made,  should  be  made  a  special  object  of  criticism  and 
correction  even  before  the  rules  of  correction  are  learned. 
Read  the  incorrect  sentences,  or  write  them  upon  the 
blackboard,  and  ask  the  pupils  what  correction  should 
be  made.  Erase  the  incorrect  form  and  have  the  correct 
form  supplied,  after  which,  let  tlie  pupils  write  the  cor- 
rected sentence  in  a  blank-book.  Sometimes  the  sen- 
tence may  be  written  with  certain  parts  omitted,  and  the 
pupils  be  asked  to  supply  the  missing  parts.     Thus  the 

teacher  ma}'^  write,  "One  of  the  boys here."     The 

pupils  are  to  be  led  to  say  whether  is  or  are  is  to 
be  used  in  the  sentence,  and  then  they  should  write  the 
sentence  in  full  as  before.  Sometimes  correct  and  in- 
correct sentences  may  be  placed  npon  the  board  and 


LANGUAGE.  97 

the  pupils  asked  to  write  correctly  all  the  sentences 
they  see.  This  plan  is  especially  good  for  examination, 
when  pupils  will  not  be  helped  by  guessing,  as  they  are 
when  something  in  every  sentence  is  to  be  corrected. 
Let  the  most  common  errors  receive  the  most  attention, 
and  review  often  enough  to  have  the  corrections  fixed 
in  the  mind. 

Do  not  let  the  incorrect  forms  remain  upon  the  board, 
for  fear  they  will  be  imitated  by  children  in  their  writ- 
ing. Only  the  correct  forms  should  be  written  in  the 
blank-book  by  the  pupils,  or,  if  incorrect  forms  are  writ- 
ten, they  should  be  erased  or  marked  with  a  cross. 

Correction  of  Written  Work.  —  The  value  of  language 
lessons,  so  far  as  accuracy  is  concerned,  depends  largely 
upon  the  extent  and  manner  of  correction.  If  the  in- 
correct language  of  pupils  is  left  uncorrected,  the  errors 
are  impressed  upon  their  minds,  and  the  use  of  incorrect 
forms  of  speech  becomes  a  habit  with  them.  It  is 
advisable,  therefore,  to  allow  no  language  work  to  be 
done  without  correction. 

It  is  well  to  have  each  pupil,  beyond  the  first  year, 
provided  with  a  language-exercise  book.  For  the 
younger  pupils,  the  book  may  be  made  by  binding 
together  from  twelve  to  twenty  leaves  of  primary  ruled 
paper.  Upon  the  left-hand  page  the  language  exercise 
can  be  written ;  and  upon  the  right-hand  jjage  the  same 
exercise,  after  it  is  corrected,  can  be  rewritten  in  a 
correct  form. 

In  dictation  and  other  exercises  in  which  all  the 
pupils  are  supposed  to  have  the  same  forms  of  expres- 
sion, the  proper  correction  may  be  made  by  the  pupils 
themselves  as  the  exercise  is  repeated  by  the  teacher  or 


98  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

placed  upon  the  blackboard.  In  other  exercises,  such 
as  abstracts,  letters,  etc.,  in  which  the  language  of  each 
pupil  is  different  from  that  of  every  other  one,  the  cor- 
rection of  errors  should  be  made  by  the  direct  assistance 
of  the  teacher.  Some  corrections  may  be  made  at  the 
time  of  writing,  the  teacher  passiug  among  the  pupils 
and  pointing  out  their  errors;  but  most  of  the  errors 
will  have  to  be  corrected  after  tlie  papers  are  collected. 
Such  corrections  should  be  so  made  as  to  have  the 
pupils  ascertain  the  correct  form  and  rewrite  the  given 
exercise  entire.  If  a  slate  is  used,  the  sentence  contain- 
ing the  error  should  be  erased  and  rewritten  correctly. 
If  books  are  used,  such  as  have  been  suggested,  the 
errors  may  be  corrected  and  the  exercise  be  rewritten 
on  the  opposite  page. 

But  it  will  not  be  well  to  have  all  the  corrections 
made  by  the  teacher.  In  the  first  place,  such  work,  if 
done  thoroughly,  would  take  up  much  of  the  teacher's 
time,  both  in  and  out  of  school ;  and  secondly,  cor- 
rections made  by  the  teacher  are  not  so  useful  as 
those  which  enable  each  pupil  to  see  the  mistakes  of 
all  the  rest  and  know  how  they  are  to  be  avoided. 
This,  of  course,  is  most  difficult  with  the  younger 
pupils,  and  yet  it  may  be  done  to  some  extent  even  with 
them.  In  correcting  mistakes,  as  in  teaching,  do  not 
attempt  too  much  at  a  time.  The  time  of  an  entire 
recitation  may  profitably  be  taken  to  correct  a  single 
exercise  of  a  few  sentences.  When  a  correction  is  pre- 
sented to  a  class,  drill  upon  it  as  soon  as  convenient, 
so  that  the  mistake  may  not  be  made  again,  or,  if  it 
is  made,  that  it  may  be  corrected  by  the  pupils. 

One  way  of   correcting  is  as  follows :  Let  as  many 


LANGUAGE.  99 

pupils  write  their  exercises  upon  the  blackboard  as  can 
be  accommodated  there,  and  call  the  attention  of  the 
entire  class  to  the  corrections  you  make  in  each,  fre- 
quently appealing  to  the  class  for  assistance.  One  pupil 
may  have  punctuated  the  sentences  improperly ;  another 
may  have  failed  in  the  use  of  capital  letters ;  the  sen- 
tences of  another  may  be  poorly  constructed. 

When  some  of  the  corrections  have  been  made,  ask 
the  ijupils  to  re-examine  their  papers  and  mark  the 
errors  they  see.  Then  after  exchanging  papers  they 
may  correct  the  mistakes  of  one  another.  After  all  this 
is  done,  the  teacher,  by  glancing  over  the  papers,  can 
tell  whether  they  may  be  copied  into  the  language 
books  as  they  are,  or  whether  another  recitation  will 
be  necessary  to  correct  the  papers.  By  this  method 
the  teacher's  work  will  be  materially  lightened,  and 
the  pupils  will  acquire  the  power  of  correcting  their 
own  and  one  another's  errors. 

With  older  pupils  a  key  for  the  correction  of  errors 
may  be  used.  The  following  key  has  been  tried  with 
success  in  some  schools :  — 

W.  —  Careless  writing. 
S.  —  Error  in  spelling. 
P.  —  Error  in  punctuation. 
C.  —  Error  in  capital  letter. 
Wd.  —  Error  in  use  of  word. 
G.  —  EiTor  of  grammar. 
V. — Vague;  meaning  uncertain. 
F.  —  Error  in  figure. 
B.  —  Borrowed. 
Par.  —  Place  of  beginning  paragraph. 
[  ]  —  Passages  within  brackets  to  be  recast. 
? — To  inquire  about. 
X  —  Some  faidt  too  obvious  to  require  particularizing. 


100  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Underline  the  error,  and  place  the  letter  indicating 
correction  in  the  margin. 

A  simpler  form  of  marking  would  be  to  draw  an  ob- 
lique line  through  an  error  of  spelling,  punctuation,  or 
use  of  capital  letter ;  to  underline  a  word  wrongly  used, 
and,  if  the  sentence  should  need  reconstructing,  to  en- 
close it  in  a  parenthesis.  Anything  more  than  this,  to 
be  indicated  by  writing. 

One  good  method  of  correcting  the  compositions  of 
older  pupils  is  to  have  two  or  three  pupils  write  their 
compositions,  or  a  part  of  them,  on  the  board  each  morn- 
ing. During  the  day  the  other  members  of  the  school 
may  correct  what  is  written,  using  the  signs  of  a  given 
key.  Before  the  session  closes,  the  teacher,  with  colored 
crayon,  may  go  over  the  work,  correcting  each  error  that 
has  been  made.  The  attention  of  the  school  should  be 
called  to  these  corrections,  and  the  pupils  be  asked  to 
copy  the  signs  of  correction  and  rewrite  their  compo- 
sitions. The  same  course  may  be  pursued  each  day  with 
other  compositions.  In  this  way  each  pupil  learns  to 
avoid  errors  which  he  and  others  have  made.  The  pu- 
pils also  by  degrees  acquire  the  ability  to  correct  one 
another's  errors;  so  that  after  a  time  the  papers  may 
be  distributed  among  members  of  the  class  or  school, 
for  correction,  subject  to  final  correction  by  the  teacher. 
The  importance  of  having  tlie  pupils  rewrite  their  com- 
positions after  correction  should  not  be  forgotten. 


GKAiMMAK.  101 


GRAMMAR. 

During  the  first  seven  years  in  school  the  pupil  has 
been  learning  to  express  his  thoughts  with  accuracy  and 
facility.  In  this  work  he  has  acquired  an  art  which  will 
be  of  the  greatest  practical  value  to  him,  and  he  has 
also  laid  the  foundation  for  the  study  of  principles. 
He  may  now  begin  the  study  of  grammar,  which  treats 
of  the  relations  and  forms  of  words  in  sentences.  He 
may  also  study  the  elements  of  logiq  and  rhetoric, 
which  are  closely  related  to  grammar,  —  logic  treating 
of  the  thought  expressed,  and  rhetoric  treating  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  thoughts  are  expressed.  Analysis 
of  sentences  and  the  choice  of  words  and  phrases  do 
not  really  belong  to  grammar,  which  has  reference 
mainly  to  the  construction  of  sentences.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  the  teacher  should  keep  in  mind  these  dis- 
tinctions, though  the  three  subjects  may  be  carried  on 
together. 

Outline  of  Study.  —  During  the  last  two  years  of 
the  grammar-school  course  —  if  the  course  is  nine  years 
—  the  study  of  grammar  and  analysis  may  be  pursued; 
but  only  the  simpler  facts  should  be  learned  in  the 
grammar  school,  the  more  abstruse  and  difficult  parts 
of  the  subject  being  left  for  the  high-school  course.  A 
book  may  be  used,  but  it  should  not  be  rigidly  adhered 
to  either  in  the  order  of  topics  or  amount  taken.  Some 
things  will  have  to  be  supplied  by  the  teacher,  and  in 
the  case  of  many  books  much  will  have  to  be  left  out. 

The  following  outline  will  indicate  both  the  order  and 
amount  of  work  which  may  be  taken  in  two  years :  — 


102  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

1.  Sentence :  — 

Subject,  Predicate  \  Copula. 

(  Attribute. 

2.  Parts  of  speech :  — 

(1)  Noun. 

(2)  Pronoun. 

(3)  Adjective. 

(4)  Verb. 

(5)  Adverb. 

(6)  Preposition. 

(7)  Conjunction. 

(8)  Interjection. 

3.  Sentences :  — 

(1)  Kinds: 

Declarative,  imperative,  interrogative,  exclamatory. 

(2)  Forms: 

Simple,  complex,  compound. 

4.  Analysis :  — 

(1)  Principal  elements : 

^^  -l  [  entire,  simple. 

Predicate  ) 

(2)  Subordinate  elements : 

(rt)  Uses  and  kinds : 

Objective,  adjective,  adverbial. 
(b)  Form: 

Word,  phrase,  clause. 

5.  Nouns :  — 

(1)  Kinds: 

Common,  proper. 

Collective,  abstract. 

Simple,  derivative,  compound. 

(2)  Properties : 

Numbers,  genders,  cases. 

6.  Pronouns :  — 

(1)  Kinds: 

Personal,  interrogative,  relative,  adjective 

(2)  Properties : 

Persons,  numbers,  genders,  cases. 


GRAMMAR.  103 

7.  Adjective:  — 

(1)  Kinds: 

Descriptive,  pronominal,  numerals,  articles. 

(2)  Variations  of  form : 

Comparison. 

8.  Verbs:  — 

(1)  Kinds: 

Regular,  irregular. 
Transitive,  intransitive. 

(2)  Forms: 

Simple,  derivative,  mode  inflections,  voices,  tense  in- 
flections, persons,  numbers  (conjugation). 

9.  Adverbs:  — 

(1)  Kinds: 

(a)  Simple  (in  relation)  : 

Manner,  place,  time,  degree,  cause,  etc. 
(h)  Conjunctive. 

(2)  Properties : 

Comparison. 

10.  Prepositions. 

11.  Conjunctions:  — 

(1)  Kinds: 

Co-ordinate,  subordinate. 

(2)  Uses. 

12.  Interjections. 

l>efiiiitions.  —  The  object  of  study  in  grammar  is 
the  sentence,  precisely  as  the  mineral  is  the  object  of 
study  in  mineralogy  or  the  plant  in  botany.  Beginning 
with  the  sentence,  therefore,  or  with  several  sentences, 
we  first  lead  the  pupils  to  know  and  define  a  sentence 
and  its  related  parts.  Two  points  are  to  be  observed 
in  teaching  definitions :  first,  to  see  that  they  are  con- 
structed by  the  pupils  upon  facts  which  they  themselves 
have  observed ;  secondly,  to  secure  accuracy  of  state- 
ment. When  the  definitions  have  been  properly  taught, 
and  when  the  statements  are  made  by  the  pupils  in 


104  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

accordance  with  the  facts  observed,  it  may  be  well  to 
compare  those  statements  with  others  which  are  found 
in  the  text-book,  and  which  may  sometimes  be  substi- 
tuted for  their  own.  But  even  the  text-books  are  not 
always  correct,  as  when  it  is  stated  that  "  the  subject  of 
a  proposition  is  that  of  which  something  is  said  "  and 
that  "  a  noun  is  a  name." 

To  illustrate  how  definitions  may  be  made,  the  fol- 
lowing examples  are  given  :  — 

The  pupil  is  first  asked  to  express  a  thought  about 
the  book,  the  crayon,  and  the  schoolhouse.  These  and 
other  expressions  are  placed  upon  the  blackboard,  and 
the  name  "sentence"  is  given  to  each  expression.  The 
pupils  soon  see  and  state  that  "  a  combination  of  words 
expressing  a  thought  is  a  sentence."  By  observing  the 
sentences  it  becomes  apparent  that  there  are  two  dis- 
tinct parts  in  every  sentence,  one  part  expressing  that 
of  which  something  is  said,  and  the  other  part  telling 
what  is  said  of  that  expressed  by  the  first  part.  The 
definitions  of  subject  and  predicate  are  accordingly 
made  from  these  facts. 

Etyniolog-y.  —  The  parts  of  speech  and  their  proper- 
ties are  also  learned  by  observation.  Sentences  as  be- 
fore are  written  upon  the  blackboard,  and  the  attention 
of  the  pupils  is  directed  to  those  words  which  name 
objects  of  thought,  or  things  of  which  we  may  think. 
A  noun,  then,  is  seen  to  be  a  word  which  names  an 
object  of  thought.  By  this  definition  which  they  have 
made  the  pupils  should  point  out  the  nouns  in  many 
written  and  printed  sentences  until  the  nouns  of  any 
sentence  which  they  understand  are  quickly  recognized. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  what   use 


GKAMALA.R.  105 

should  be  made  of  the  book.  It  may  be  used  by  the 
pupils  after  the  topics  have  been  taught,  chieliy  for 
guidance  in  accuracy  of  statement  and  in  furnishing 
suitable  sentences  for  illustration  and  study. 

Much  practice  will  be  found  necessary  before  the 
parts  of  speech  can  be  readily  distinguished  and  named. 
It  is  well  for  the  pupil  also  to  give  definitions  as  he 
names  the  parts  of  speech. 

When  the  parts  of  speech  can  be  readily  distinguished, 
they  may  be  taken  up  separately,  beginning  with  the 
noun.  As  before,  present  to  the  pupils  sentences  con- 
taining nouns  having  various  uses  and  properties.  As 
these  uses  and  properties  are  distinguished,  they  should 
be  classified,  named,  and  defined.  The  following  exam- 
ple will  illustrate  the  method  of  teaching  the  kind  and 
properties  of  all  parts  of  speech.  Place  several  sen- 
tences upon  the  blackboard  ;  as,  — 

The  boy  lost  his  knife  in  Boston. 
John  V)ought  an  apple  for  his  sister. 
The  man's  coat  was  torn. 
Williain's  sister  Kate  went  to  the  city. 
The  girls  went  to  the  concert. 
There  are  seven  days  in  a  week. 
The  dog  is  named  Donald. 

First  ask  the  pupils  to  select  those  nouns  which  name 
an  individual  object.  The  nouns  Boston,  John,  Wil- 
liam's, Kate,  and  Donald  would  be  selected,  to  which 
the  name  proper  would  be  given  by  the  teacher.  Proper 
nouns  should  then  be  selected  from  the  reading-books 
and  defined.  The  other  nouns  will  be  seen  to  be,  not 
the  names  of  individual  objects,  but  the  names  of  classes 
of   objects.     These   are  named  and  defined  as   before. 


106  IVIETHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Further  classification  of  the  kinds  of  common  nouns,  as 
collective,  abstract,  and  verbal,  may  be  made  in  the 
same  way,  and  each  kind  be  defined. 

Numbers  and  genders  are  easily  taught.  The  pupils' 
knowledge  of  language  will  enable  them  to  distinguish 
and  define  these  terms  at  once.  Cases  are  also  easily 
recognized  and  defined  when  it  is  known  that  there  are 
only  two  case-forms  of  nouns,  —  one  used  to  denote 
possession,  and  the  other  all  other  relations.  The  sub- 
jective and  objective  relation  of  nouns  should  be  indi- 
cated in  parsing,  and  in  the  case  of* pronouns  the  names 
of  the  cases  should  be  given.  Persons  of  pronouns 
should  be  taught  by  placing  before  the  pupils  many 
sentences  in  which  different  forms  are  used  to  indicate 
whether  they  denote  the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to, 
or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  The  pupils  will  see 
that  only  some  pronouns  have  person,  and  will  call 
these  personal  pronouns.  The  cases  of  pronouns  should 
be  taught  in  a  similar  manner,  and  when  the  various 
forms  indicating  the  different  relations  are  easily  distin- 
guished and  named  the  definition  should  be  given.  Tlie 
inflection  will  follow,  and  should  be  made,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, by  the  pupil  alone. 

The  other  parts  of  speech  and  their  properties  should 
be  taught  in  the  same  way.  First  present  many  exam- 
ples of  the  fact  which  it  is  desired  to  teach,  and  when 
the  fact  is  well  understood,  lead  the  pupils  to  apply  the 
knowledge  gained  in  many  different  sentences. 

Syntax.  —  The  right  construction  of  sentences  is  the 
object  of  the  study  of  grammar,  and  its  rules  should  be 
considered  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  study  of  gram- 
mar is  begun.     Greater  interest   in  the  study  will  be 


GRAMMAR.  107 

awakened  when  its  practical  bearing  is  seen,  and  a 
greater  variety  and  amount  of  practice  in  correcting 
false  syntax  will  be  had  by  learning  the  rules  of  syntax 
early  in  the  course.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  proper- 
ties of  the  parts  of  speech  are  known,  their  rules  of  con- 
struction should  be  learned.  The  rules  are  taught  in 
the  same  way  as  are  definitions.  Put  upon  the  black- 
board many  sentences  like  the  following  :  — 

John  struck  his  ball. 
I  saw  him  in  the  city. 
He  taught  me  to  read. 
Etc.,  etc. 

By  observing  these  sentences  the  pupils  will  be  led 
to  see  the  changed  forms  of  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in 
different  relations,  and  will  also  discover  that  in  certain 
relations  the  same  form  is  used.  From  the  facts  thus 
learned  the  rules  will  be  made. 

Parsing.  —  Parsing  consists  in  giving  the  parts  of 
speech,  their  kinds,  properties,  uses,  and  the  rules  for 
their  construction.  The  use  of  parsing  is  to  apply  in  a 
convenient  form  the  facts  and  principles  which  have 
been  learned.  The  form  of  parsing  should  be  simple, 
and  at  first  definitions  and  inflections  should  be  given 
mainly  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  them  in  memory.  The 
following  form  for  parsing  a  pronoun  may  be  used  by 
beginners :  — 

In  the  sentence  "He  came  to  see  me,"  "me"  is  a 
pronoun  because  it  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 
(Declined  :  nom.  I,  etc.)  It  is  a  personal  pronoun  be- 
cause it  has  person  ;  first  person,  because  it  denotes  the 
speaker:  singular  number,  because  it  stands  for  one 
object ;  objective  case,  object  of  "  to  see,"  according  to 


108 


METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 


(he  rule,  —  A  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  tran- 
sitive verb  or  its  participles  must  be  in  the  objective 
case. 

After  some  practice  of  this  kind  is  had,  a  shorter 
form  may  be  used,  as :  "  me  "  is  a  personal  pronoun, 
first  person,  singular  number,  objective  case.  Rule:  A 
noun  or  pronoun,  etc. 

The  order  for  parsing  the  various  parts  of  speech  in 
the  shorter  form  may  be  as  follows  :  — 


1.  Noun  :  — 

(1)  kind, 

(2)  number, 

(3)  gender, 

(4)  case, 

(5)  rule  of  construction. 

2.  Pronoun :  — 

(1)  kind, 

(2)  person, 

(3)  number, 

(4)  gender, 

(5)  case, 

(6)  rule  of  construction. 

3.  Adjective :  — 

(1)  kind, 

(2)  (number), 

(3)  degree  of  comparison, 

(4)  I'elation. 


4.  Verb:  — 

(1)  kind, 

(2)  (voice), 

(3)  mode, 

(4)  tense, 

(5)  agreement, 
(G)  rule. 

5.  Adverb :  — 

(1)  kind, 

(2)  (deg.  of  comparison), 

(3)  relation. 

6.  Preposition :  — 

use. 

7.  Conjunction :  — 

(1)  kind, 

(2)  use. 


Analy.si.s.  —  While  the  study  of  the  parts  of  speech 
is  progressing,  there  should  be  taught  the  various  kinds 
and  forms  of  sentences  and  analysis  as  indicated  in  the 
outline.  The  phraseology  used  in  the  outline  may  not 
be  the  same  as  that  which  is  used  in  the  text-book ;  but 


GRAMMAR.  109 

whatever  form  is  used,  there  should  be  kept  constantly 
in  mind  the  purpose  of  gaining  a  clear  perception  of  the 
thought  of  the  author,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  proper 
form  and  order  of  elements.  Let  the  progress  in  analy- 
sis be  very  gradual,  allowing  each  new  fact  learned  to 
be  reviewed  in  many  sentences.  At  first  the  sentences 
studied  should  be  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  when  the 
elements  of  such  sentences  are  learned,  the  same  kind 
and  form  of  elements  may  be  found  in  other  and  more 
complex  sentences.  The  following  form  of  analysis  will 
illustrate  the  use  of  terms  given  in  the  outline  :  — 

The  tidings  of  the  death  of  his  son  filed  the  old  man's  heart  with 
anguish. 

A  simple,  declarative  sentence. 

The  entire  subject  is  "  The  tidings  of  the  death  of  his  son." 

The  simple  subject  is  "  tidings.'"' 

The  entire  predicate  is  "filed  the  old  man's  heart  with  anguish." 

The  simple  predicate  is  '^ filed." 

"  Of  the  death  of  his  son  "  is  an  adjective  phrase  and  modifies 
"  tidings." 

"  Of  his  son  "  is  an  adjective  phrase  and  modifies  "  death." 

*'  The  old  man's  heart "  is  an  objective  phrase,  and  modifies 
''filed." 

"  With  anguish  "  is  an  adverbial  phrase,  and  modifies  "filled." 

The  form  and  relation  of  separate  words  are  given  in 
the  parsing  which  follows  the  analysis. 

Synthesis.  —  Composition-writing  of  all  kinds,  as 
outlined  in  another  place,  should  be  carried  on  through- 
out the  entire  course.  In  addition  to  this  there  may  be 
practice  in  combining,  contracting  and  expanding  the 
elements  of  a  sentence.  Such  work  as  the  following 
will  be  found  profitable  :  — 


110  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Writing  sentences  having  any  desired  kind  and  form 
of  element;  expanding  words  into  phrases;  expanding 
words  and  phrases  into  clauses ;  contracting  clauses 
into  phrases ;  contracting  phrases  into  words ;  combin- 
ing two  or  more  simple  sentences  into  a  compound  or  a 
complex  sentence. 

Correction  of  False  Syntax.  —  Rules  of  syntax  are 
used  not  only  in  forming  sentences  correctly,  but  also 
in  testing  the  construction  of  sentences  already  formed. 
For  reasons  already  given,  it  is  desirable  that  the  prac- 
tical benefits  of  the  study  of  grammar  should  be  derived 
as  early  as  possible.  As  soon  as  a  rule  of  sj^ntax  is 
learned,  it  should  be  used  as  a  guide  in  correcting  un- 
grammatical  sentences.  Many  sentences  containing 
violations  of  a  rule  just  learned,  and  of  rules  previously 
learned,  should  be  placed  before  the  pupils  for  correc- 
tion and  for  the  reasons  of  correction. 

To  test  the  knowledge  of  pupils,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  make  them  thoughtful  in  applying  rules,  both  correct 
and  incorrect  sentences  may  be  placed  upon  the  black- 
board for  them  to  write  out  correctly  upon  paper  and 
to  give  reasons  of  correction.  This  will  be  found  to  be 
much  better  than  to  place  before  the  pupils  sentences 
having  only  incorrect  forms  which  can  frequently  be 
corrected  "by  guess."  The  following  exercise  is  a  good 
test  for  pupils  who  have  studied  the  construction  of 
nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs. 

Write  correctly  the  following  sentences,  and  give 
I'eason  for  every  correction  made  :  — 

He  called  to  see  John  and  me  but  neither  of  us  were  at  home. 

Whom  do  you  think  I  saw  in  New  York  ? 

Who  was  it  that  touched  the  bell  ?     Was  it  me  or  James  ? 


GRAMMAR.  Ill 

Ten  men  fell  into  the  water  and  not  one  of  them  were  drowned. 

Every  one  of  the  witnesses  testifies  to  the  same  thing. 

Whom  do  you  take  me  to  be  ? 

Do  you  use  Webster  or  Worcesters  dictionary  ? 

Whom  did  you  come  with  ?  • 

He  told  John  and  1  to  come  when  we  was  ready. 


112  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


ARITHMETIC. 

Arithmetic  may  be  defined  as  a  knowledge  of  num- 
bers. The  objects  of  its  study  are,  first,  to  acquire  skill 
in  those  computations  which  are  of  use  in  the  affairs  of 
life ;  and  secondly,  to  train  the  faculties  of  the  mind. 
To  gain  these  ends  it  is  obvious  that  there  should  be  a 
careful  selection  of  topics  to  be  taught,  and  that  the 
topics  shoidd  be  presented  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure 
a  proper  kind  and  amount  of  mental  training. 

The  topics  to  be  presented,  and  the  order  in  which 
they  should  be  presented,  will  be  seen  in  the  course  of 
studies.  It  will  be  observed  that  much  that  is  found  in 
many  text-books  is  omitted  in  the  prescribed  course. 
The  subjects  are  limited  in  order  to  give  needed  time 
to  teach  and  practise  upon  the  more  practical  parts  of 
arithmetic.  Advanced  work  in  mensuration  and  com- 
plicated business  problems  are  also  dropped  from  the 
course,  for  the  reason  that  grammar-school  pupils  are 
not  mature  enough  to  grasp  these  subjects  which  would 
better  be  taken  up  in  the  high  school. 

Nearly  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind  are  developed  by 
the  study  of  arithmetic,  and  we  should  see  that  they  are 
developed  in  an  orderly  way.  While  it  is  doubtless 
true  that  the  power  of  reasoning  is  greatly  strengthened 
by  this  study,  we  must  be  careful  not  to  force  it  by  a  too 
early  application  to  difficult  problems.  The  teacher 
should  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  necessity  of  pro- 
ceeding from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  and  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex.  In  computations,  first  accuracy, 
and  secondly  ra])idity  should  be  secured.     Do  nothing 


ARITHMETIC.  113 

for  the  pupils  which  they  can  do  for  themselves,  and 
always  encourage  originality,  both  of  thought  and  of 
expression. 

When  the  idea  is  awakened  or  the  course  of  reason- 
ing made  plain,  there  should  be  a  rejietition  of  the 
mental  act,  until  the  idea  or  the  reason  is  fixed  in  the 
mind.  Frequent  reviews  and  drill  exercises  are  there- 
fore necessary,  and  should  be  given  in  such  variety  of 
form  as  will  test  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  the  subject 
and  enable  them  to  recognize  quickly  a  difference  as 
well  as  a  resemblance  of  conditions. 

Fir.st  Steps.  —  Ideas  of  number  are  first  gained  by 
means  of  visible  objects.  Blocks,  splints,  shoe-pegs,  etc., 
should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  children  as  soon  as 
they  enter  school,  and  with  these  objects  the  various 
combinations  of  numbers  should  be  made,  beginning 
with  two,  and  proceeding  by  slow  degrees,  until,  with- 
out the  aid  of  objects,  the  combinations  are  known  at 
sight.  ( Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  divis- 
ion should  be  taught  together  because  it  is  found  that 
operations  by  synthesis  assist  the  pupils  in  analysis,  and 
that  the  combination  and  separation  by  equal  parts  lead 
directly  to  shortened  forms  of  expression.  For  exam- 
ple, when  the  pupils  see  that  two  put  with  two  makes 
four,  they  can  learn  at  the  same  time  that  four  less  two 
makes  two,  that  two  twos  are  four,  and  that  four  divided 
by  two  is  two. 

As  soon  as  possible,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  apply 
the  knowledge  of  numbers  they  have  acquired.  When 
an  operation  is  performed  with  the  blocks,  stories  based 
upon  the  given  combination  may  be  made.  In  these 
stories  encourage  as  far  as  possible  originality  of  expres- 


114  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

sion.  Gradually  the  pupils  may  be  led  to  make  up  the 
stories  without  the  objects,  and  at  last  combinations 
may  be  expressed  without  reference  to  objects.  Early 
in  the  course,  also,  practice  should  be  given  in  solving 
problems  involving  the  common  weights  and  measures. 
First  with  the  objects  themselves,  and  afterwards  with- 
out them,  problems  of  a  practical  nature  may  be  solved 
while  the  pupils  are  yet  learning  the  simple  combi- 
nations. 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  combinations  with  objects,  drill  upon  abstract 
numbers  may  be  begun.  Generally  it  is  best  to  keep 
the  practice  upon  abstract  numbers  a  little  behind  the 
practice  with  objects.  For  example,  while  the  num- 
ber eight  is  being  taught  with  objects,  practice  in 
abstract  numbers  to  four  may  be  given.  To  show  how 
objects  may  be  used  in  teaching  numbers,  and  how  the 
applications  and  abstract  drill  work  may  be  done,  the 
following  outline  of  statements  and  questions  is  given. 
The  exercise  is  intended  for  a  class  of  first-year  pupils 
who  have  learned  the  combinations  to  seven.  They  are 
supposed  to  be  standing  around  a  table,  with  the  blocks 
before  them.  The  teacher  sits  at  one  end  of  the  table, 
and  directs  and  questions  as  follows :  — 

Put  one  block  with  the  seven  l)locks.  Do  you  know  how  many 
you  have  now?  You  have  eight  blocks.  Put  one  block  on  the 
table.  Put  seven  more  with  it.  One  block  and  seven  blocks  are 
how  many  blocks?  One  boy  and  seven  boys  are  how  many  boys? 
Tell  me  a  story  about  one  and  seven.  Put  six  blocks  on  the  table. 
Put  two  more  with  them.  Ilow  many  have  you?  Put  the  eight 
blocks  together.  Put  two  of  them  behind  you.  How  many  are  left 
on  the  table?  Eight  blocks  less  two  blocks  are  how  many ?  Tell 
a  story  about  eight  less  two.     Put  eight  blocks  on  the  table.     Put 


ARITHMETIC.  115 

them  into  groups  of  two.  How  many  twos  in  eight  ?  Put  them 
into  groups  of  four.  Mow  many  fom-s  in  eight?  If  one  apple  costs 
two  cents,  what  will  four  apples  cost  ?  If  one  orange  costs  four 
cents,  what  will  two  oranges  cost?  If  you  have  eight  cents,  how 
many  oranges  can  you  buy  at  a  cent  apiece  ?  How  many  at  two 
cents  apiece  ?  If  you  have  six  cents,  how  many  pencils  can  you  buy 
at  two  cents  apiece  ?  Go  to  the  store  with  six  cents  and  buy  pears 
at  three  cents  apiece.  Tell  me  a  story  about  two  threes.  About 
three  twos.  About  two  fours.  About  four  twos.  Here  are  eight 
mittens;  how  many  pairs?  How  many  horns  have  three  cows? 
How  many  ears  have  four  boys  ?  Tell  me  a  story  about  pairs  of 
shoes.     About  pairs  of  bracelets. 

How  many  twos  in  four  ?  in  six  ?  in  eight  ?  Look  and  see  how 
many  gills  in  a  quart.  How  many?  How  many  gills  in  a  pint? 
How  many  pints  in  a  quart  ?  in  two  quarts  ?  If  one  pint  of  milk 
costs  two  cents,  what  will  one  quart  cost  ?  What  will  two  quarts 
cost?     If  one  gill  costs  one  cent,  what  will  one  quart  cost? 

Divide  four  blocks  into  groups  of  two.  What  is  one-half  of  four 
blocks  ?  of  six  blocks  ?  of  eight  blocks  ?  Divide  eight  blocks  into 
groups  of  two.  What  is  one-fourth  of  eight  blocks  ?  One-eighth  of 
eight  blocks? 

Now  without  your  blocks,  quickly :  One  and  one?  Two  and 
one?  Two  less  one?  Two  and  what  make  three?  Three  less 
one?  Three  less  two?  Two  ones  and  what  make  three?  Three 
and  one  ?  One  and  three  ?  Four  less  three  ?  Four  twos  are  how 
many?  How  many  twos  in  four?  How  many  ones  in  four  ?  How 
many  threes  in  four?     One-half  of  four ?     One-fourth  of  four ? 

It  should  be  understood  that  it  will  take  several  reci- 
tations to  go  over  the  ground  covered  by  the  above 
exercise,  provided  that  time  is  given  for  the  stories  and 
for  teaching  the  measures  and  fractions.  It  will  also 
be  understood  that  the  recitation  will  not  always  take 
this  precise  form  or  that  the  combinations,  stories,  and 
illustrations  will  be  limited  to  what  is  given  above. 
See  that  every  child  is  attending  to  the  work  in  hand, 
whether  it  is  in  teaching,  telling  stories,  or  drilling,  and 


116  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

when    members  of   the    class   are  inattentive  or  tired, 
change  the  exercise  or  stop  the  recitation. 

Objects  should  not  be  used  for  teaching  numbers 
beyond  20  in  the  primary  course.  Knowing  the  com- 
binations to  20,  all  others  to  100  are  easily  learned.  In 
addition  and  subtraction  beyond  20,  the  pupils  are  made 
to  see  that  little  work  is  needed.  They  have  only  to 
apply  the  knowledge  they  already  have.  For  example, 
in  the  problems  28  +  6  and  34  —  8,  they  instantly  recog- 
nize the  results  of  8  +  6  and  14  —  8,  and  have  only  to 
think  of  the  tens  in  getting  the  answer.  At  first  the 
teacher  leads  them  to  see  this ;  afterwards  they  do  it  of 
their  own  accord,  until  adding  and  subtracting  of  all 
numbers  less  than  10  are  done  at  sight. 

In  multiplication  and  division,  the  pupils  should  be 
led  to  make  their  own  tables  from  what  they  know  of 
addition  and  subtraction.  Adding  and  subtracting  by 
twos,  threes,  etc.,  will  enable  them  easily  to  construct 
their  own  tables,  and  after  they  have  constructed  them, 
they  should  learn  them  so  well  as  to  be  able  to  multiply 
and  divide  numbers  at  sight. 

The  plan  as  laid  down  for  the  primary  grades  in- 
cludes all  combinations  to  144,  and  for  the  first  division 
of  ungraded  schools,  all  combinations  to  100.  It  is  not ' 
intended  in  this  plan  to  add  or  subtract  numbers  greater 
than  10  or  to  use  a  multiplier  or  divisor  greater  than 
12.  Yet  if  the  i)upils  become  very  proficient  in 
this  work,  it  may  be  well  to  have  them  j)ractise  in 
other  combinations,  such  as  28  +  64  ;  83  —  25 ;  18  X  4 ; 
64  -^  16.  To  add  and  subtract  large  numbers,  lead  the 
pupils  to  add  or  subtract  first  the  tens,  and  afterwards 
the  units:  thus  in  the  problem  28  i  64,  first  add  60,  then 


ARITHMETIC.  117 

4.  The  pupil  would  say  28,  88,  92.  In  subtracting  25 
from  83,  he  would  say  83,  63,  58.  After  considerable 
practice  of  this  kind  the  computations  can  be  made  at 
sight. 

Primary  Drill.  —  To  secure  accuracy  and  rapidity  of 
work,  it  will  be  found  necessary,  especially  in  the  third 
year,  to  spend  much  time  in  drill.  It  is  not  enough  to 
recite  the  tables.  Pupils  may  do  this,  and  still  not  be 
able  to  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide  at  sight. 
Practice  upon  the  combinations  may  be  had  in  prepar 
ing  a  given  lesson,  and  in  the  recitation. 

In  giving  work  for  the  pupils  "  to  study "  at  their 
seats,  the  teacher  may  give  a  lesson  in  a  book,  or  put 
the  problems  on  the  blackboard.  Time  may  be  saved 
by  putting  the  problems  on  pieces  of  cardboard.  These 
slips  may  be  used  by  different  pupils  and  classes.  The 
following  exercises  for  study  will  suggest  what  may  be 
placed  upon  the  board  or  cards :  — 


Add 


42  +  0  =  ? 

38  —  6  =  ? 

38  +  y  =  ■? 

40-9=1 

41  +  ?  =48 

35-?  =  29 

? +  26  =  34 

'-6  =  ,32 

8x3=? 

42  --  7  =  ? 

0  X  ■*  =  36 

36  -  ?  =  9 

6 

7 

4 

8 

18 

.  6 

9 

5 

-9 

X8 

8)18 


The  same  exercises  may  be  used  for  drill  in  recita- 
tion. In  addition  to  these  the  following  exercises  are 
suggested. 

Add  by  columns,  the  teacher  or  pupil  pointing,  begin- 
ning with  very  short  columns  and  easy  numbers,  thus  :  — 


118  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


3 

5 

2 

5 

7 

6 

9 

2 

4 

6 

4 

3 

4 

8 

1 

2 

o 

6 

5 

8 

3 

The  pupil  will  say  one,  three,  six ;  two,  six,  eleven ; 
three,  nine,  eleven  ;  and  so  on.  Increase  the  length  of 
columns  gradually,  until  the  pupils  can  add  quickly 
twenty  or  more  numbers  expressed  by  a  single  figure 
without  mistake. 

Another  method  of  drill  is  to  place  four  columns  on 
the  board,  thus  :  — 


+  6 

X4 

-5 

H-3 

7 

(5 

16 

26 

2 

9 

19 

29 

9 

3 

13 

23 

3 

7 

17 

27 

5 

4 

14 

24 

8 

5 

15 

25 

6 

2 

12 

22 

4 

8 

18 

28 

As  the  teacher  points  to  each  number,  let  the  pupil 
add,  subtract,  multiply,  or  divide,  as  indicated  above  the 
columns.  By  changing  the  figures  above  the  columns, 
a  great  amount  of  work  may  be  dictated  in  a  little  time. 
The  pupils  may  give  the  result  with  or  without  giving 
the  formula. 

Still  another  method  of  drill  is  to  place  figures  near 
the  circumference  of  a  circle,  and  add  until  a  certain 
number  is  reached;  or  subtract,  beginning  with  a  cer- 
tain number. 

Add  by  2's,  by  3's,  etc.,  beginning  with  2,  with  3,  etc. 
Subtract  by  2's,  by  3's,  etc.,  beginning  with  40,  with  50, 
etc. 


AKITHMETIC.  119 

Place  in  the  centre  of  the  circle  described  above 
a  figure  or  figures.  Point  to  any  figure  in  the 
circumference,  and  require  the  pupil  to  multiply 
or  divide.  By  occasionally  changing  the  figures  in 
the  circle,  a  large  number  of  problems  may  be  given. 
Keep  the  attention  of  every  pupil  to  the  recitation 
of  every  other  pupil,  and  require  answers  only  as  you 
point. 

Practical  Problems.  —  Mention  has  been  made  of 
the  advisability  of  making  stories  in  connection  with  the 
learning  of  combinations.  When  the  combinations  are 
known,  they  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  possible  to 
practical  problems.  These  problems  should  contain  the 
common  weights  and  measures,  and  should  be  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  induce  pupils  to  think.  The  following 
problems  will  suggest  what  may  be  given  daily  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  third  year  in  school.  Some  of  the 
problems  will  have  to  be  carefully  taught  with  objects 
before  they  can  be  understood  by  the  pupils.  Encour- 
age the  pupils  to  give  one  another  original  problems  of 
a  similar  kind. 

What  will  three  pints  of  milk  cost  at  eight  cents  a  qnai't  ? 

How  many  cupfuls  of  milk  in  a  quart,  if  each  cup  holds  half  a 
gill? 

A  piece  of  tape  six  inches  long  costs  three  cents.  What  will  a 
yard  cost  at  the  same  rate  ? 

How  many  apples,  at  the  rate  of  two  for  a  cent,  can  I  buy  for 
twenty  cents  ? 

What  will  six  apples  cost,  at  the  rate  of  two  for  three  cents? 
what  at  the  rate  of  three  for  two  cents  ? 

I  buy  12  two-cent  stamps  at  the  post-office,  and  give  a  half- 
dollar.     What  change  will  be  given  me? 

Eighteen  eggs  are  worth  what  at  twenty  cents  a  dozen  ? 


120  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

What  will  oue  pound  and  four  ounces  of  meat  cost  at  twelve 
cents  a  pound  ? 

If  you  should  walk  six  rods  north,  and  then  turn  and  walk  eight 
rods  south,  how  many  rods  would  you  be  from  the  place  where  you 
first  started?  how  many  yai'ds?  how  many  feet? 

If  a  peck  of  potatoes  will  last  a  family  one  week,  how  many 
weeks  will  two  bushels  last  them  ? 

At  one  dollar  a  yard,  what  will  be  the  cost  of  a  piece  of  carpet- 
ing twenty-four  feet  long? 

Notation  and  Numeration.  —  The  writing  and  read- 
ing of  numbers  should  be  begun  in  the  fourth  year, 
but  it  is  not  well  to  give  numbers  of  more  than  seven 
or  eight  places  at  this  time.  Sticks,  and  bundles  of 
tens  and  hundreds  should  be  used  to  teach  notation. 
The  sticks  may  be  counted,  and  the  number  expressed 
b}'  figures  on  the  blackboard.  Eighteen  sticks  should 
be  counted  as  one  ten  and  eight,  the  ten  being  bound 
into  a  bundle.  When  two  more  sticks  are  placed  with 
them,  they  will  make  two  bundles  of  ten  sticks  each,  and 
should  be  called  two  tens,  or  twenty.  When  ten  bun- 
dles of  ten  sticks  each  are  counted,  they  should  all  be 
bound  together  into  one  bundle  and  called  one  hundred. 
As  the  numbers  are  thus  taught,  the  expression  should 
be  placed  upon  the  board  in  figures  and  read.  It  may 
not  be  necessary  to  teach  notation  in  this  way  beyond 
thousands.  When  this  is  done,  the  pupil  will  see  that 
ten  of  one  denomination  will  make  one  of  the  next 
higher,  and  can  write  and  read  numbers  readily  to 
millions.  In  the  fifth  year  billions,  trillions,  and  quad- 
rillions should  be  taught. 

Numbers  of  two  places  of  decimals  should  be  taught 
and  used  in  the  fourth  year.  Pupils  should  learn  to 
write  decimals  at  first  through  a  knowledge  of  writing 


AKITHMETIC.  121 

dollars  and  cents.  When  they  can  write  and  read  num- 
bers in  dollars  and  cents  readily,  lead  them  to  see  that, 
as  there  are  one  hundred  cents  in  a  dollar,  one  cent  is 
one-hundredth  part  of  a  dollar,  and  that  one-hundredth 
is  expressed  precisely  as  one  cent  is  when  written  with 
a  decimal  point.  Six  dollars  and  one  cent  is  expressed 
thus,  '^6.01,  and  may  be  read  six  dollars  and  one  cent, 
or  six  and  one-hundredth  dollars.  From  this  it  may 
be  readily  seen  that  any  number  of  cents  represents  so 
many  hundredths,  and  may  be  read  as  hundredths. 
The  first  figure  at  the  right  of  the  decimal  point  repre- 
sents the  number  of  dimes,  and  may  be  called  tenths  of 
a  dollar.  This  may  be  taught  in  the  same  way  as  hun- 
dredths is  taught.  Numbers  of  three  places  of  decimals 
can  be  taught  in  the  fifth  year.  As  one  thousand  mills 
make  a  dollar,  one  mill  is  one-thousandth  of  a  dollar ; 
and  therefore  one  mill,  when  expressed  by  figures,  may 
be  read  one-thousandth. 

Fundamental  Processes.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  year  in  graded  schools,  and  of  the  second  period 
in  ungraded  schools,  the  pupils  are  supposed  to  have  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  four  fundamental  processes 
to  144  or  to  100.  They  can,  without  hesitation,  add 
and  subtract  twelve  and  all  numbers  below  twelve. 
They  can  with  equal  facility  multiply  and  divide,  when 
the  multiplier  and  divisor  do  not  exceed  twelve.  They 
have  learned  to  express  in  figures  the  numbers  to  144, 
and  can  count  to  one  thousand.  They  have  learned  to 
use  and  to  write  the  fractions  |,  ^,  ^,  ^,  |,  in  connection 
with  the  combinations,  and  have  had  much  practice  in 
the  application  of  their  knowledge  of  numbers  to  prac- 
tical problems. 


122  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

All  of  this  work  should  be  constantly  reviewed  in 
the  fourth  year,  while  other  things  are  being  taught. 
As  soon  as  jDupils  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  units 
and  tens  in  writing  numbers,  addition  of  numbers  of 
two  figures  should  be  begun.  This  should  be  taught 
with  sticks,  beginning  with  the  addition  of  two  num- 
bers that  will  not  require  "carrying."  We  may,  for 
example,  wish  to  add  22  and  21. 

22  sticks  and  21  sticks  are  placed  in  position,  properly 
separated  into  tens  and  units.  Putting  the  one  unit 
with  two  units,  we  have  three  units.  Putting  the  two 
bundles  of  tens  with  the  other  two  tens,  we  have  four 
tens.  Answer,  four  tens  and  three  units,  or  forty-three. 
The  figures  should  be  written  out  in  proper  order,  and 
each  result  indicated  as  we  go  on.  Several  problems 
equally  easy  should  be  WTOught  in  the  same  way. 

When  the  pupils  have  had  sufficient  practice  of  this 
kind,  take  an  easy  problem  in  which  the  sum  of  the 
units  is  more  than  nine.  Thus,  in  the  problem  24  +  38, 
take  the  sticks  as  before,  and  put  the  4  sticks  with  the 
8  sticks,  making  12  sticks  equal  to  1  ten  and  2  units. 
Put  together  the  10  sticks  in  one  bundle,  and  add  the 
tens  thus,  1  +  2  +  3=6  tens.  Answer,  6  tens  and  2 
units,  or  62. 

Subtraction  can  be  taught  by  taking  from  a  given 
number  of  sticks  a  part.  Thus,  to  teach  34  —  22,  we 
would  take  2  sticks  from  the  4  sticks  and  2  tens  from 
the  3  tens,  leaving  1  ten  and  2  units,  or  12. 

To  subtract  17  from  35,  we  should  put  before  the 
pupils  35  sticks,  consisting  of  8  bundles  of  tens  and  5 
units.  Asking  them  to  first  take  7  units  from  the  5 
units,  they  will  see  at  once  that  they  will  have  to  untie 


ARITHMETIC.  123 

one  of  the  bundles  and  put  the  10  sticks  with  the  5 
sticks,  making  15  sticks.  Now  they  take  7  sticks  from 
15  sticks,  and  have  remaining  8  sticks.  1  ten  from  2 
tens  leaves  1  ten.     Answer,  1  ten  and  8  units,  or  18. 

Multiplication  and  division  should  also  be  taught 
with  objects,  each  operation  being  expressed  in  figures. 
It  will  not  be  necessary  to  carry  the  objective  teaching 
beyond  hundreds,  but  it  will  be  found  useful  to  have 
considerable  practice  with  smaller  numbers  before  num- 
bers of  the  higher  denominations  are  taken.  No  num- 
ber higher  than  ten  thousand  should  be  used  during 
the  fourtli  year,  so  as  to  allow  time  for  a  sufficient 
amount  of  drill  and  for  work  upon  practical  problems. 

Fractions.  —  According  to  the  prescribed  course, 
fractions  are  taught  during  the  sixth  year  in  the  graded 
school,  or  the  latter  part  of  the  second  period  in  the 
ungraded  school.  Before  this,  simple  fractions  liave 
been  taught  objectively,  and  used  to  some  extent  in  the 
various  operations.  Circles  of  pasteboard  will  be  found 
to  be  the  most  convenient  means  of  teaching  fractions. 
The  idea  of  a  fraction  should  be  first  taught  by  present- 
ing the  circles  cut  into  halves,  fourths,  eighths,  thirds, 
and  sixtlis.  The  expression  may  follow,  first  oral  and 
then  written.  Three-fourths  will  be  seen  to  be  three 
of  the  four  equal  parts  into  which  the  circle  is  divided, 
and  is  expressed  by  placing  one  figure  above  another, 
and  a  line  between  them.  The  lower  figure  will  be 
seen  to  express  the  size  of  the  parts,  and  the  upper  fig- 
ure to  express  the  number  of  parts  taken,  j  Considerable 
practice  of  this  kind,  with  the  fractional  circles  and 
expressions,  may  be  followed  by  giving  the  terms  denom- 
inator and  numerator^  and  having  them  defined  by  the 


124  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

pupils.  The  same  objects  may  be  used  in  teaching 
reduction  of  mixed  numbers  to  improper  fractions,  of 
improper  fractions  to  mixed  numbers,  and  of  fractions 
of  one  denomination  to  those  of  another.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  occasion  the  fdea  before  the  expression  is 
given.  Thus  the  reduction  of  5\  to  fourths,  4|  to 
eighths,  3f  to  sixths ;  of  f,  f,  f,  to  whole  or  mixed  num- 
bers ;  of  I,  f ,  I,  3%,  to  lower  terms,  should  be  known  by 
means  of  objects  before  the  operation  is  expressed  in 
writing.  When  these  facts  have  been  presented  many 
times  to  the  pupils,  they  may  be  expressed  in  figures, 
and  the  pupils  may  be  led  to  see  the  process  by  which 
the  answers  are  obtained.  For  examjjle,  in  the  state- 
ment 5f  =  -\^,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  see,  after  the 
fact  has  been  taught  by  objects,  that  the  answer  could 
be  obtained  by  the  following  course  of  reasoning.  In  1 
there  are  4  fourths,  in  5  there  are  5  times  4  fourths,  or 
20  fourths  ;  add  3  fourths,  and  the  answer  is  \^.  If  it 
is  thought  advisable,  the  rule  could  be  deduced  in  the 
same  way. 

In  teaching  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and 
division  of  fractions,  the  same  method  sliould  be  pur- 
sued. First  use  the  objects,  and  afterwards  express  the 
operations  by  performing  them  in  figures  on  the  board. 
Practise  much  in  this  way  with  small  numbers  before 
the  book  is  used,  and  from  the  })roblems  performed  lead 
the  pupils  to  deduce  their  own  explanation  or  rule. 

To  illustrate  the  method  of  teaching  fractions  the 
following  examples  are  given,  one  for  teaching  addition, 
and  one  for  division.  It  will  be  understood  that  reduc- 
tion of  fractions  has  been  taught  before  these  subjects 
are  reached. 


ARITHMETIC.  125 

Look  at  these  circles  and  fractions  as  I  hold  them  before  you. 
How  much  is  .]  of  a  circle  and  I  of  a  circle?  4  +  l'?4  +  i?  i  +  f? 
1+2?  i+\'<  l  +  l?  i+V  U  +  f?  H  +  t?  *  +  f?^  +  f? 
4  +  1"?  i  +  f?  i  +  l?  Let  us  now  express  in  figures  the  answers 
you  give  me:  ^+J  =  l;f+}  =  l|_^i  +  i  =  f;  etc. 

Do  you  see  how  we  added  the  halves  and  fourths  ?  How  did 
we  add  the  fourths  and  eighths  ?  Give  an  example  adding  halves 
and  fourths,  fourths  and  eighths.  Your  lesson  to-morrow  will  be 
these  fifty  problems  on  the  board  (or  chart). 

The  problems  given  for  study  are  of  course  similar 
to  those  which  they  have  had  with  the  circles  in  the 
class. 

The  first  part  of  the  following  exercise  is  designed  to 
show  how  to  teacli  the  division  of  a  fraction  by  a  whole 
number.  The  second  part  illustrates  a  method  of 
teaching  the  division  of  a  whole  number  by  a  fraction. 
The  directions  and  questions  should  be  many  more  than 
are  here  given,  and  each  exercise  may  be  enougli  for 
two  recitations. 

Divide  this  circle  into  two  equal  parts ;  how  much  in  each  part  ? 
Divide  this  half-circle  into  two  equal  parts ;  how  much  in  each 
part  ?  Divide  these  two  circles  into  four  equal  parts ;  how  much 
in  each  part?  Divide  these  two  circles  into  eight  equal  parts; 
how  much  in  each  part?  Divide  this  half -circle  into  four  equal 
parts  ;  how  much  in  each  part  ?  Divide  one-fourth  of  a  circle  into 
two  equal  parts;  how  much  in  each  part?  Divide  three-fourths 
into  two  equal  parts;  how  much  in  each  part?  Let  us  now  see 
what  you  have  done  (writing  on  the  board)  :  — 

1-T-2=J;    \^2  =  \;   2-4=.^;    2-8=J;    i-^4=J;    i^2  =  |; 

Who  will  divide  any  of  these  fractions  into  equal  parts  and 
place  the  result  on  the  board  ? 

Practise  in  this  way  with  halves,  fourths,  and  eighths, 
and  then  with  thirds  and  sixths.     When  a  large  num- 


126  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

ber  of  problems  and  answers  is  placed  upon  the  board, 
lead  the  pupils  to  see  and  express  fur  themselves  the 
fact  that  we  may  divide  by  a  whole  number  by  dividing 
the  numerator  or  multiplying  the  denominator.  When 
they  have  done  this,  give  out  a  large  number  of  simple 
problems  for  them  to  perform  before  the  book  is  taken. 
To  divide  an  integer  by  a  fraction. 

Call  these  circles  pies.  I  have  eight  pies,  and  give  them  to  the 
persons  in  the  room ;  each  person  receives  four  pies ;  how  many 
persons  in  the  room  ?  Put  down  on  your  slate  eacli  operation  as 
you  find  it.  I  have  eight  pies,  and  give  to  each  person  in  the 
room  two  pies;  how  many  persons  in  the  room?  I  have  one  pie, 
and  give  to  each  person  at  the  table  one-half  a  pie ;  how  many 
persons  at  the  table?  I  have  one  pie,  and  give  to  each  person  at 
the  table  one-fourth  of  a  pie ;  how  many  persons  at  the  table  ?  I 
have  two  pies,  and  give  to  each  person  at  the  table  one-half  a  pie  ; 
how  many  persons  at  the  table  ?  etc. 

Now  let  us  see  what  you  have  on  your  slate.     Yes,  — 

8--4  =  2;  8--2  =  4;  1-^  =  2;  l-i=4;  2--i  =  4;  2--}  =  8; 
2-J  =  6;  2--i=12. 

Keep  these  upon  your  slates,  and  do  as  many  more  as  you  can 
before  to-morrow. 

Now  call  the  circles  cents.  I  have  four  cents  (holding  up  four 
circles)  ;  if  apples  are  one  cent  apiece,  how  many  apples  can  I 
buy  ?  how  many  at  h  cent  apiece  ?  how  many  at  \  of  a  cent  apiece  ? 
If  the  apples  were  three  times  as  much  apiece,  how  many  could  I 
get;  more  or  less?  what  part  as  much?  If  these  apples  were  |  of 
a  cent  apiece,  how  many  apples  could  I  get?  Now  let  us  take 
eight  cents.  Who  will  give  us  the  same  kind  of  a  problem? 
What  are  the  expressions  on  your  slate  ?  Let  us  put  them  on  the 
board : — 

4^1  =  4;  4-^=8;  4-J=16;4-|  =  V  =  5i;  8-^^  16; 
8-|  =  Y-  =  5i;  8--i=.32;  8  -  «  =  ^  =  io|. 

From  this  work  both  the  ex})laiiati()ii  and  rule  may 
be  deduced  by  the  pupils. 


ARITHMETIC.  127 

Applications. — -From  the  time  the  child  enters 
school  he  is  led  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  n umbers  in 
making  and  doing  practical  problems  of  various  kinds. 
With  a  knowledge  of  common  and  decimal  fractions  his 
work  of  this  kind  can  only  be  limited  by  his  immatu- 
rity. As  the  pupil  matures,  his  field  of  study  and  prac- 
tice widens.  Some  part,  at  least,  of  all  kinds  of  business 
he  may  know,  and  the  teacher  should  gather  from  every 
source  material  with  which  to  work ;  several  reference 
books,  both  written  and  mental,  should  be  upon  the 
desk  to  suggest  ways  in  which  the  pupils'  knowledge 
of  numbers  may  be  applied. 

Weights  and  Measures.  —  These  subjects,  according 
to  the  prescribed  course,  are  taken  in  the  seventh  year. 
During  all  the  preceding  years  the  pupils  have  per- 
formed problems  which  involve  nearly  all  of  the  weights 
and  measures  commonly  used  in  every-day  life.  They 
will  not,  therefore,  have  to  spend  much  time  in  learning 
the  tables.  The  metric  system,  and  some  parts  of  the 
tables  of  square  and  cubic  measures,  and  of  Avoirdupois 
and  Troy  weights,  will  have  to  be  learned:  also  miscel- 
laneous facts,  such  as  the  weight  of  different  commodi- 
ties, the  number  of  units  in  a  gross,  and  score ;  number 
of  sheets  in  a  quire  and  ream,  and  the  value  of  common 
foreign  coins.  All  of  these  tables  which  will  be  of  use 
to  the  i)upils  should  be  made  and  learned  by  them. 
When  they  are  learned,  they  should  be  reviewed  and 
applied  so  frequently  that  the  pupils  will  not  have  to 
go  to  the  book  for  information. 

In  choosing  work  for  the  pupils,  give  only  that  w'hich 
is  practical.  Omit  all  parts  of  compound  addition,  sub- 
traction, and  division,  which  are  rarely  or  never  used. 


128  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Do  not  give  impossible  areas  or  volumes  to  measure  or 
absurd  puzzles  to  solve,  but  let  the  work  be  such  as 
occurs,  or  may  occur,  in  practical  life. 

The  time  may  be  well  spent  in  the  reduction  of  com- 
pound numbers,  both  ascending  and  descending,  the 
computation  of  longitude  and  time,  and  the  mensura- 
tion of  surfaces  and  solids,  such  as  papering  and  carpet- 
ing rooms,  measuring  boards,  wood,  bins,  etc.  Select 
from  two  or  three  books  placed  upon  your  table  for  the 
purpose  such  problems  as  you  think  most  practical  and 
best  adapted  to  your  pupils.  If  the  reasoning  of  any 
problem  is  complex,  give  the  same  problem  first  with 
small  numbers,  and  always  encourage  the  pupil  to 
use  blocks  and  diagrams  to  illustrate  the  problems. 
The  practice  of  illustrating  problems  by  diagrams 
cannot  be  too  early  begun  or  too  constantly  insisted 
upon. 

Very  much  time  need  not  be  spent  upon  the  metric 
system.  It  is  enough  to  teach  by  objects  the  different 
measures,  and  to  lead  the  pupils  to  work  enough  upon 
the  various  applications  to  see  the  great  saving  of  time 
which  would  follow  the  introduction  of  the  system.  As 
the  denominations  are  rarely  used  in  practice  at  the 
present  time,  they  would  be  soon  forgotten  if  learned 
ever  so  well.  Therefore,  not  so  thorough  work  in  the 
application  of  metric  measures  should  be  attempted  as 
in  those  measures  which  are  in  common  use. 

Percentage.  - —  The  kind  of  work  to  be  done  in  per- 
centage is  indicated  in  the  best  text-books  upon  the 
subject.  The  amount  to  be  done  is  limited  only  by  the 
time  of  the  pupil,  for  very  much  drill  is  needed  to 
distinguish  readily  the  various  conditions  of  problems 


ARITHMETIC.  129  i 

I 

which  are  classed  under  the  head  of  percentage.     In  no       j 
part  of  arithmetic  is  the  necessity  greater  of   passing        j 
slowly  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  than  in  per- 
centage.    Teach  each  part  of    the    subject  with  great        i 
care,   using  familiar  illustrations  and    small  numbers. 
Avoid,  so  far  as  possible,  all  work  by  rule,  but  lead  the 
pupil  by  slow  degrees  to  understand  the  principle  in- 
volved in  each  problem  as  it  is  presented.     Review  fre- 
quently, and  arrange  the  problems  in  such  a  way  as  to 
encourage  the  pupils  to  think.     Sometimes  pupils  are 
directed  to  look  over  a  "  model  solution,"  and  to  perform        j 
all  the  problems  of  a  given  lesson  by  it  —  a  course  which        j 
is  likely  to  discourage  independent  thinking.     To  indi-        I 
cate  how  the  subjects  may  be  taught,  a  few  illustrative        j 
examples  are  here  given.     The  process  of  each  problem 
should  be  indicated  upon  the  blackboard  as  the  answers        i 
are  found,  and  when  the  principle  is  understood,  drill        | 
with  small  numbers  upon  many  similar  problems  should 
be  given.     Present   for  a   lesson   problems  containing 
various  conditions,  so  as  to  induce  the  pupils  to  consider 
carefully  each  step  of  the  work.  | 

1.  Given  the  cost  and  seUiufj  price,  to  find  the  rate  per  cent.  j 
I  buy  a  book  for  84,  and  sell  it  for  !§5.     What  do  I  gain  ?     What 

part  of  the  cost  is  the  gain  ?     How  many  hundredtlis  of  the  cost  is 

the  gain  ?     What  per  cent  ?  I 

I  buy  a  book  for  $5,  and  sell  it  for  !fii4.     What  part  of  the  cost  I 

do  I  lose  ?    What  per  cent  do  I  lose  ?  j 

I 

Give  other   problems  of  a  similar  kind   containing 

small  numbers. 

2.  To  find  the  simple  interest  of  any  sum  '>f  money. 

I  lend  you  !|190.     To  whom  is  a  favor  done?     Who  should  pay  i 

whom  for  the  use  of  it?     Money  paid  for  the  use  of  money  is  \ 


130  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

interest.  The  money  loaned  is  called  the  principal.  Suppose  you 
were  to  pay  me  8  per  cent  of  the  principal  (!$10U)  for  the  use  of  it 
for  one  year ;  what  would  you  pay  me  ?  What  would  you  pay  me 
for  the  use  of  it  for  two  years  ?  Six  months  ?  Suppose  you  were 
to  pay  me  6  per  cent  a  year ;  how  mucli  would  you  pay  me  for  one 
year?  For  six  months?  For  three  months?  For  two  months? 
For  one  month,  or  thirty  days  ?  For  six  days  ?  For  twelve 
days?  etc. 

Suppose  I  were  to  lend  you  $600  at  6  per  cent  a  year;  how 
much  would  you  pay  me  for  six  months  ?  For  one  month  ?  For 
one  day  ?     For  four  days  ?     For  six  months  and  four  days  ? 

When  this  method  is  well  understood,  by  much  prac- 
tice teach  any  one  of  the  shorter  methods  in  the  same 
way,  and  allow  only  that  method  to  be  used. 

3.  Given  the  sum  sent  to  an  agent,  and  his  comntission,  tojind  what 
is  expended. 

First  teach  by  familiar  examples  the  terms  commission,  con- 
signor, consignee. 

Upon  what  does  a  commission  merchant  always  reckon  his  com- 
mission ?  If  he  buys  goods  for  flOO,  and  his  commission  is  2  per 
cent,  what  does  he  get  for  his  trouble?  What  would  be  sent  him 
to  pay  for  the  cost  of  the  goods  and  his  commission  ?  If  I  should 
send  my  agent  f  102  with  which  to  purchase  goods  after  deducting 
his  commission  of  2  per  cent,  what  would  he  expend  ?  What  would 
he  have  for  his  trouble  ?  The  cost  of  the  goods  represents  how 
many  hundredths,  or  per  cent,  of  itself?  The  commission  is  how 
many  per  cent  of  the  cost  ?  What  I  send  him  is  how  many  per 
cent  of  the  cost?  How  will  you  get  100  per  cent?  (If  the  pupils 
hesitate  here,  use  the  familiar  problems  like  the  following :  John 
has  one-third  more  money  than  James.  John  has  20  cents ;  how 
many  cents  has  James  ?) 

William  has  50  per  cent  more  money  than  Thomas.  William 
has  !|3 ;  how  nmch  has  Thomas  ? 

Repeat  such  problems  until  the  pupils  see  the  princi- 
ple involved,  and  can  readily  perform  the  jjroblenis  in 
which  the  base  is  not  efiven. 


AKITHMETIC.  131 

4.  To  assess  a  tax  upon  the  property  of  an  individual. 

First  suppose  that  $100  is  to  be  raised  in  a  school  of  fifty  pupils, 
each  pupil  to  pay  an  equal  share  without  reference  to  the  amount 
of  property  he  has.  What  part  of  the  whole  amount  would  each 
pay?  What  per  cent?  How  much  would  each  pay?  Suppose 
that  the  $100  is  to  be  paid  by  the  pupils  in  proportion  to  the  prop- 
erty they  held,  and  all  together  had  $1,000 ;  how  much  on  one 
dollar  would  be  raised?  If  John  had  $50,  what  would  be  his  tax? 
Again,  assuming  that  everyone  of  the  pupils  should  pay  one  dollar 
whether  he  had  property  or  not,  how  nmch  would  be  raised  in  this 
way?  How  much  left  of  $100  would  have  to  be  raised  on  the 
property  ?  How  much  now  would  have  to  be  raised  on  one  dollar  ? 
What  would  John's  tax  be? 

Increase  the  difficulties  slowly  until  large  numbers 
can  be  easily  dealt  with. 

Notes,  bills,  receipts,  insurance  policies,  bonds,  and 
other  business  papers  should  be  brought  into  the  class 
and  used  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  reality  to  the  work 
and  to  fix  the  principles  taught.  Parties  concerned  in 
business  transactions  may  be  personated  by  members  of 
the  class.  For  example,  one  pupil  may  be  the  maker  of 
a  note,  another  may  be  the  payee,  another  may  be  an 
endorser,  another  may  represent  the  cashier  of  a  bank. 
The  whole  subject  of  notes,  including  interest,  partial 
payments,  and  bank  discount,  may  in  this  way  become 
real  and  interesting,  and  be  firmly  fixed  in  the  minds 
of  the  pupils. 

Definitions  and  Rules.  —  Definitions  and  rules  should 
be  taught  in  the  higher  classes  of  the  grammar  grade, 
not  by  having  the  pupils  commit  them  to  memory,  but 
by  a  process  of  analysis.  For  example,  to  teach  the  defi- 
nition of  subtraction  the  teacher  might  take  any  num- 
ber, as  ten  blocks,  and  take  away  three  blocks  to  see 
how  many  blocks  remain.     The  pupil  will  observe  the 


132  METHODS    OF  TEACHING. 

process,  and  define  subtraction  as  "  the  process  of  tak- 
ing ]3art  of  a  number  away  to  find  how  many  are  left." 
Rules  are  also  taught  in  the  same  way.  Let  the  pupil 
observe  each  step  of  a  given  process,  and  state  in  gen- 
eral terms  the  order  in  which  the  steps  were  taken. 

The  use  of  formulas  should  be  largely  avoided  in  all 
grades  except  the  highest.  Whenever  formulas  are 
used,  they  should  be  made  by  the  pupils  from  princi- 
ples which  are  already  understood. 

Mental  Arithmetic.  —  The  use  of  mental  arithmetic  is 
unquestioned.  It  aids  in  developing  the  powers  of  at- 
tention, memory,  and  reasoning,  cultivates  tlie  power 
of  language,  and  greatly  assists  pupils  in  their  writ- 
ten number  work.  Oral  exercises  should  be  given 
separately,  and  also  in  connection  with  written  arith- 
metic. 

The  oral  exercises  which  are  given  in  connection  with 
written  arithmetic  are  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating principles,  and  for  drill  both  in  abstract  and 
in  concrete  work. 

Illustrations  of  the  use  of  small  numbers  in  teaching 
a  new  subject  or  principle  have  already  been  given. 
By  concentrating  the  thought  mainly  upon  the  reason- 
ing processes,  the  pupil  is  led  to  see  plainly  what  he 
could  not  see  if  he  were,  dealing  with  large  numbers. 
Mental  exercises  should  therefore  very  frequently  pre- 
cede or  introduce  a  regular  recitation  in  written  arith- 
metic, and  the}'  may  also  be  given  whenever  pupils  fail 
to  understand  a  process  or  the  conditions  of  a  problem. 
For  example,  there  may  be  some  pupils  who  do  not  un- 
derstand the  process  of  finding  the  present  value  of  a 
note  due  at  some  future  time.     The  principle  involved 


ARITELMETIC.  133  ! 

is  found  to  be  very  simple  when  such  problems  as  the         ; 
following  are  given :  —  j 

John  has  -i  cents,  which  is  ),  as  much  as  James  has ;  how  much  ^ 

has  James?    John  has  6  cents,  which  is  ?  as  much  as  James  has;  ' 

how  much  has  James  ?    John  has  a  certain  sum  of  money ;  after  iiis  j 

father  gave  him  i  as  much  moi'e,  he  had  6  cents;  how  much  had  ' 
he  at  first? 

By  giving  many  problems  similar  to  these,  and  in- 
creasing the  size  of  the  numbers  gradually,  the  pupils 
can  readily  see  that  the  present  value  is  \^  of  itself;  ' 
and  if  it  gains  yf  q  in  six  months,  it  will  be  worth  {^  of 
its  present  value  in  six  months.  Knowing  its  value  \ 
then  in  money,  the  present  value  can  be  easily  ascer- 
tained. 

When  a  principle  is  well  understood,  it  needs  to  be 
fixed  in  the  mind  by  doing  mentally  many  simple  prob- 
lems involving  that  principle,  and  others  which  have        \ 
been  taught  previously.     For  example,  when  division  of 
fractions  is  well  understood,  problems  like  the  following        j 
should  be  given  in  great  number: —  j 

I  divide  8  apples  equally  among  some  boys,  giving  each  boy  i  of         i 
an  apple ;  how  many  boys  received  a  part  ? 

To  how  many  boys  could  I  give  6  apples,  if  each  boy  has  J  of 
an  apple? 

How  many  sticks  li  feet  long  can  be  cut  from  a  stick  6  feet 
long? 

How  many  bushels  of  potatoes  at  |  of  a  dollar  a  bushel  can  be 
bought  for  $6  ?  : 

Four  men  earned  in  one  day  ^Sl.      If  this  money  were  divided 
equally  among  them,  how  much  would  each  man  receive?  ; 

When  coal  can  be  bought  for  f7  a  ton,  what  part  of  a  ton  can  be 
bought  for  $2),?  j 

Drill  follows  teaching,  and  serves  to  fix  in  the  mind        i 


134 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 


what  is  taught.  It  may  consist  of  practice  upon  abstract 
work,  in  which  rapidity  is  the  end  sought,  or  upon  con- 
crete work,  in  which  the  main  object  in  view  is  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  reasoning  powers;  or  it  may  combine 
both  of  these  operations,  and  aim  to  promote  both 
thought  and  rapidity.  Besides  the  means  ah-eady  sug- 
gested for  drill,  the  teacher  might  place  upon  the  black- 
board or  upon  manilla  paper  drill  tables  like  the  follow- 
ing. By  extending  the  tables  to  10  or  15,  several 
hundred  problems  may  be  given  from  each  table  :  — 


A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

1 

1 

■2 

1 

2 

1 

4 

1 

3 

1 

6 

i 

t 

1  8 
4 

•2 

H 

2 
3 

16 

2 

f 

1 

4 

i 

2 
3 

2 
6 

1 

3 

6 

12 

"8 

4 

3| 

H 

13 

3 

4 

8 

2 
8 

i 

3 
6 

1 
3 

f 

2 
8 

1  6 
6 

3 

'H- 

If 

19 

4 

6 
8 

3 

8 

i 

4 
6 

i 

4 
9 

6 
9 

1  5 
9 

8 

5| 

2| 

1  '^ 
1  f 

5 

i 

1 

1 

2 

5 

6 

1 

5 
9 

6 

8 

_1_8 
8 

6 

4^- 

3| 

14 

The  table  may  be  used  as  follows : 


A  +  B, 

B  +  C, 

A  +  C, 

B  +  E, 

B  +  D, 

A  +  E, 

etc 

A-B, 

A-C, 

A-B, 

D  -  E, 

D-F, 

I-A, 

etc 

AXB, 

BXC, 

A  XI, 

Ax  J, 

AXF, 

AXE, 

etc 

I -A, 

I-C, 

A -I, 

J -I, 

A-B, 

A-C, 

etc 

Reduce  I  pounds  to  ounces. 

Reduce  E  feet  to  inches. 

What  will  A  pounds  of  meat  cost  at  L  cents  a  pound?  etc. 

Besides  the  oral  work  which  is  done  in  connection 
with  written  arithmetic,  there  should  be  a  few  minutes 
set  apart  each  day  for  miscellaneous  mental  practice. 
The  problems  given  should  be  of  a  varied  character, 
sometimes  consisting  of  operations  with  abstract  num- 
bers, in  which  accuracy  and  rapidity  are  mainly  sought; 


ARITHMETIC.  135 

at  other  times  the  problems  should  be  of  such  a  nature 
as  will  call  into  active  exercise  the  reflective  faculties. 
As  no  one  book  would  furnish  a  sufficient  variety  of 
problems,  there  should  be  upon  the  teacher's  table  sev- 
eral different  mental  arithmetics,  from  which  to  gather 
and  give  problems  of  a  proper  kind.  It  will  not  be 
found  best  for  the  teacher  or  pupils  to  read  the  prob- 
lems from  a  book.  Let  the  teacher  glance  over  two  or 
three  pages  of  a  book,  and  select  such  problems  as  will 
induce  the  pupils  to  think,  giving  them  in  language  of 
his  own.  Sometimes  the  problems  may  be  analyzed  and 
explained,  and  sometimes,  especially  in  examination, 
answers  only  may  be  required.  One  good  method  of 
examining  a  class  in  mental  arithmetic  is  to  give  out 
the  problem  slowly  and  distinctly,  ask  the  pupils  to  do 
it  mentally  and  to  keep  the  answer  in  their  minds. 
After  a  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  for  all  to  do  the 
problem,  give  the  direction,  "  Write  the  answer,"  and 
after  they  have  had  time  to  write  the  figures  of  the 
answer,  ask  them  to  put  the  pencils  down  and  to  take  a 
good  position.  If  the  answers  are  given  in  large  figures, 
the  slates  may  be  examined  by  having  them  held  up, 
asking  pupils  who  have  the  wrong  answer  not  to  hold 
them  up. 

Explanations.  —  Great  freedom  should  be  allowed 
in  the  form  of  explanations,  especially  to  pupils  of  the 
lower  grades.  The  pupils'  attention  should  be  directed 
mainly  to  the  thought,  and  not  to  the  language,  as  is 
frequently  the  case  when  complicated  and  set  forms  are 
insisted  upon.  Sometimes  a  pupil  will  understand  how 
to  perform  a  problem,  but  cannot  give  the  reason.  Let 
similar  problems  be  given  with  smaller  numbers,  and 
the  expression  of  a  reason  will  come  in  time. 


136  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Short  Processes.  —  Always  encourage  the  pupil  to 
perform  a  problem  in  the  shortest  way,  provided  the 
problem  is  equally  well  understood  by  the  short  process. 
It  will  be  found  generally  best  in  the  lower  grades  to 
have  but  one  method  of  performing  problems  of  a  given 
kind.  In  the  higher  grades,  however,  the  pupils  should 
be  encouraged  to  perform  problems  with  the  fewest 
figures,  provided,  of  course,  accuracy  is  not  sacrificed. 


GEOGRAPHY.  137 

GEOGRAPHY. 

GEOGKArnY  is  a  knowledge  of  the  earth  on  which 
we  live.  Physical  geography  treats  of  the  earth  in  its 
natural  condition,  including  land,  water,  climate,  and 
productions.  Political  geography  treats  of  the  earth  as 
modified  by  man,  its  countries,  cities,  towns,  society, 
religion,  government,  etc. 

Geography  may  be  elementary  or  scientific.  Ele- 
mentary geograph}'  is  a  knowledge  of  facts  and  is  pur- 
sued in  the  primary  and  grammar  schools.  Scientific 
geography  is  a  knowledge  of  causes  and  relations,  and 
may  be  begun  in  the  highest  class  of  the  grammar  or 
ungraded  school  and  be  continued  in  the  high  school. 
It  should  be  said,  however,  that  the  facts  to  be  studied 
in  the  lower  grades  may  include  as  much  of  the  relations 
of  cause  and  effect  as  are  within  the  comprehension  of 
the  pupils  of  those  grades. 

.  Objects.  —  The  knowledge  acquired  in  the  study  of 
geography  should  be  a  real  knowledge  of  the  earth  as 
the  home  of  man,  providing  for  him  food,  clothing,  and 
shelter,  supplying  objects  for  his  enjoyment  and  study, 
and  so  being  a  means  of  social,  intellectual,  and  spirit- 
ual progress.  As  a  means  of  mental  culture,  also,  the 
study  of  geography  is  of  great  use.  Observation,  imag- 
ination, memory,  judgment,  and  language  are  all  exer- 
cised in  the  study,  and  by  it  the  child's  interest  in  the 
world  about  him  is  awakened  in  such  a  way  as  to 
increase  his  sympathy  and  love  for  his  fellow-men. 

It  is  evident  that  these  great  objects  cannot  be  at- 
tained by  learning  and  reciting  facts  ordinarily  found 
in  a  text-book,  especially  if  the  facts  stand  in  the  pupils' 


138 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 


minds  in  a  disconnected  way  and  unrelated  to  any  expe- 
rience of  theirs  or  to  any  direct  use. 

Preparatory  Lessons.  —  Before  geography  as  a  study 
is  begun,  children  need  to  acquire  a  proper  habit  of 
observation,  and  to  gather  facts  which  will  aid  them  in 
their  subsequent  study.  During  the  first  three  or  four 
years,  therefore,  the  plan  of  study  includes  lessons  in 
Form^  Place^  Plants,  Animals,  and  Minerals,  which  are 
intended  to  give  such  knowledge  as  will  make  the  study 
of  geography  more  intelligible  and  therefore  more  prof- 
itable. The  methods  to  be  pursued  in  these  subjects  are 
to  be  treated  under  the  head  of  Observation  Lessons. 

Local  G-eograpliy.  —  Further  preparation  for  the  study 
of  geography  is  made  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  by 
lessons  to  teach  geographical  ideas  and  geographical 
language.  The  knowledge  thus  gained  is  sometimes 
called  local  geography  because  much  of  it  is  gained  by 
observation  in  the  locality  of  the  school. 

The  simpler  subjects  of  the  following  outline  should 
be  taught  during  the  third  year,  the  more  difficult  being 
delayed  until  the  fourth  year,  when  all  preparatory  work 
should  be  reviewed. 


I.   Bodies  of  Land. 


1.  Hill 


3.  Plain :  ^ 


'  base. 

slopes. 

summit. 

hill  range. 
^  hill  system. 

field. 

woods. 

meadow. 

swamp. 

prairie. 
.  desert ;  oasis. 


2.  Mountain  :< 


4.  Table-land. 


base. 

slopes. 

summit. 

peaks. 

mountain  range  or 

chain. 

mountain  system. 

,  ( crater, 

volcano :  < 

(  lava. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


139 


5.  Valley:  — 
River  valley. 
Gorge,  or  canon. 
Pass. 


beach. 


8.  Coast 


J  cliffs. 

I  bluffs. 

*•  projections : 

'  continental, 
oceanic. 
9.  Islands:^  volcanic. 

I  coral. 


6.  Highlands. 


7.  Lowlands. 


f  cape. 

I  promontory. 

peninsula. 

isthmus. 


1.  Spring 


3.  River 


II.   Bodies  of  Water 

pure  water. 

mineral. 

hot. 


geysers. 

source, 
branches, 
banks. 
bed. 
current, 
channel, 
water-falls, 
mouth, 
uses. 

river  system 
river  basin. 
.  water-shed. 


2.  Brook:  ^ 


4.  Pond: 


soiu'ce. 

branches. 

banks. 

bed. 

current. 

channel. 

mouth. 
,  water-shed. 

system. 

basin. 

system. 

basin. 

sea  (archipelago). 

gulf. 

bay. 
G.  Ocean  :■{  harbor. 

strait. 

channel. 
^  sound. 
Climate  (weather). 


Lake ; 


TIL 

/•  hot. 
1.  Temperature  :    <  cold. 

V  temperate. 
Spring,  stiminer,  autumn,  winter;  day,  night. 


J 


140 


METHODS   OF   TEACHLNG- 


2.  Air  and  moisture; 


IV.  Soil: 


wind, 
vapor, 
dew. 

frost, 
cloud, 
fog. 
mist, 
rain, 
hail, 
snow. 
L  ice. 

loamy, 
sandy, 
clayey, 
fertile, 
arable. 
.  barren. 


1.  Plants: 


2.  Animals; 


3.  Minerals : 


V.  Productions. 

for  food, 
for  clothing, 
for  building-material 
for  fuel, 
for  medicine. 
.  for  oils  and  dyes. 


houses. 

ships. 

utensils. 


for  food 
for  clothin 
for  labor. 


furs. 


r  lur 
g :  \  skins. 
I  leather. 


for  utensils 


5  ivory, 
I  bone. 


{houses, 
ships. 
utensils, 
for  food. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


141 


VI.   People. 


1.  Races ; 


2.  Occupations: 


3.  Goveniiueiit : 


4.  Religion  : 


Caucasian, 

ISIongolian. 

Malay. 

African. 

American. 

(  agriculture, 
fishing, 
nunin"'. 


manufactures. 

S  exports. 
L  commerce  :  <  .    ^ 

(  imports. 

^  republic. 

>  ,        S  absolute. 

^  monarcliv  :  \ 

i  limited. 

r  Pagan. 

j  Jewish. 

I  Cliristian. 

V  Mohaiumedan. 


r  savage. 

barbarous. 
5.  States  ot  Society  :  ^  ,    ,,.    ....     , 
halt-civihzed. 

V  civilized. 

Some  of  the  foregoing  subjects  will  be  found  difficult 
to  teach  satisfactorily.  Let  it  be  remembered,  however, 
that  no  amount  of  telling  or  reading  can  take  the  place 
of  teaching,  and  that  the  teacher  may  be  content  to 
teach  very  little  of  a  subject,  provided  the  facts  are  dis- 
covered and  expressed  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

Among  the  most  difficult  of  these  subjects  to  teach  is 
climate,  a  thorough  study  of  which  belongs  to  a  later 
l)eriod.  Some  ideas  of  the  subject  may  be  gained  by 
calling  attention  to  the  temperature  and  moisture  of  the 


142  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

atmosphere  from  time  to  time,  making  comparisons  of 
the  weather  of  different  seasons  and  of  different  places. 
It  may  be  noted  that  the  temperature  is  more  equable 
near  the  sea  than  at  a  distance  from  it,  and  that  it  is 
lower  upon  a  high  hill  than  it  is  in  the  valley. 

Some  general  ideas  of  the  formation  of  dew  and  rain 
may  be  gained  by  simple  experiments.  Call  attention 
of  children  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  water  which  was 
left  in  a  dish  on  the  stove  the  day  before  has  disap- 
peared. Bring  out  the  statement  from  them  that  the 
water  has  "gone  into  the  air."  Call  attention  to  the 
rising  steam,  and  ask  them  for  familiar  instances  of 
the  same  thing.  Give  them  the  name  evaporation. 
Hold  a  cold  plate  over  the  steam,  and  let  them  observe 
the  drops  of  water  formed  on  the  plate.  Call  attention 
to  the  deposit  of  moisture  on  the  window-pane  in  a  cold 
day,  and  upon  the  outside  of  a  pitcher  of  ice-water  in  a 
warm  room.  From  these  illustrations  the  children  get 
the  idea  of  condensation  ;  and,  by  a  little  questioning, 
they  may  see  that  the  same  conditions  exist  in  the  for- 
mation of  dew  and  rain  as  exist  when  drops  of  water 
are  seen  to  form  on  the  plate  and  pitcher. 

Most  of  the  topics  in  the  above  outline,  under  Bodies 
'^  of  Land  and  Bodies  of  Water ^  may  be  taught  by  lead- 
ing the  children  to  observe  the  various  features  of  land 
and  water  in  the  vicinity  of  the  schoolhouse.  The  ob- 
servation should  be  made  from  the  schoolhouse  at  the 
time  of  recitation  and  at  recess,  or  it  may  be  made  in 
little  tours  of  inspection  by  the  school  either  as  a  whole 
or  in  groups.  Frequently  it  will  be  found  well  to  direct 
the  attention  of  children  to  certain  things,  and  have 
them    bring  the  results  of  their  observation   into  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  143 

recitation.  It  will  be  useful,  also,  to  call  attention  to 
their  past  experiences,  and  to  use  the  results  of  tlisir 
experience  in  the  recitation. 

As  an  assistance  both  to  observation  and  to  memory, 
it  will  be  found  well  to  draw  and  to  mould  representa- 
tions of  the  various  objects  observed,  and  to  have  the 
pupils  express  correctly,  in  their  own  language,  all  the 
facts  observed. 

For  the  purpose  of  teaching  productions,  bring  before 
the  class  as  many  specimens  of  native  and  foreign  prod- 
ucts as  can  be  found.  From  the  stores,  from  the 
neighboring  woods,  and  from  the  homes  of  pupils,  there 
may  be  obtained  a  large  number  of  vegetable,  animal, 
and  mineral  productions,  some  of  which  may  be  kept 
permanently  in  the  school. 

To  teach  ideas  relating  to  people,  first  lead  the  chil- 
dren to  think  of  the  condition  of  the  people  of  their  own 
town  and  State.  Subsequently,  by  means  of  stories  and 
pictures,  lead  them  to  compare  the  people  of  other  coun- 
tries with  those  of  their  own  country  in  respgpt  to  occu- 
pations, religion,  government,  race,  and  state. 

Plan-Drawing.  —  Before  maps  of  unknown  places  are 
drawn  or  studied,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  drawing  of  plans,  first  in  connection  with  lessons 
upon  Place.^  After  drawing  the  outline  of  various  sur- 
faces, and  indicating  the  place  of  objects  upon  them, 
drawing  to  scale  should  be  begun.  One  foot  to  the 
inch  when  drawn  upon  the  board,  or  four  feet  to  the 
inch  when  drawn  upon  the  slate,  may  be  a  convenient 
scale  for  drawing  the  floor  of  the  schoolroom.  Do  not 
assist  the  pupils  much,  neitlier  allow  them  to  be  discour- 

1  p.  103. 


144  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

aged  for  want  of  assistance.  When  the  floor  of  the  room 
is  carefully  drawn,  let  the  different  objects  —  as  the 
teacher's  desk,  stove,  etc.  —  be  indicated  upon  the  plan. 
As  the  object  is  to  associate  representations  with  the 
things  represented,  the  pupils  should  sometimes  be 
called  upon  to  point  out,  in  the  room,  certain  objects 
represented  upon  the  plan. 

The  first  plans  upon  the  board  should  always  be  made 
upon  the  north  side  of  the  room  ;  and  if  made  upon 
the  slate,  the  upper  part  of  the  slate  should  be  toward 
the  north.  By  degrees  the  pupils  may  learn  that  the 
upper  side  of  the  slate  or  plan  represents  north,  the 
lower  side  south,  the  right-hand  side  east,  the  left- 
hand  side  west.  Objects  in  the  room  may  now  be 
indicated  in  the  plan  by  dictation,  as  follows:  Draw 
the  platform  on  the  west  end ;  the  stove  four  feet 
from  the  north  side  ;  the  ventilator  near  the  south-east 
corner,  etc. 

Passing  from  the  room,  the  next  step  will  be  to  draw 
the  school  grounds  and  neighborhood.  Here  the  prog- 
ress should  be  slow,  and  the  steps  carefully  taken,  for 
there  are  many  important  points  to  be  presented,  —  direc- 
tion of  streets,  brooks,  and  fences,  and  the  location  of 
houses,  ponds,  hills,  etc.  A  progressive  plan  may  be 
made,  with  the  schoolhouse  as  a  centre,  the  pupils 
drawing,  day  by  day,  three  or  four  additional  objects, 
until  a  complete  plan  of  the  neighborhood  is  made. 
After  this,  good  maps  of  the  town  and  country  should 
be  stiulied  carefully,  and  those  places  which  the  pupils 
have  seen  be  particularly  noted.  There  should  be  a 
good  map  of  the  town  and  adjoining  towns  hung  up 
in  the  sclioolroom  for  occasional  reference.     If  such  a 


GEOGRAPHY.  145 

map  is  not  provided,  one  may  be  made  upon  manilla 
paper  or  upon  the  blackboard. 

Much  of  the  plan-drawing  should  be  done  in  the 
third  year,  in  connection  with  the  study  of  local  or 
home  geography ;  but  it  should  be  reviewed  occasion- 
ally in  the  fourth  year,  that  good  ideas  of  maps  may  be 
had  before  the  pupil  draws  maps  of  continents  and 
countries. 

As  a  means  of  reviewing  the  subjects  which  have  been 
taught  in  the  preparatory  lessons,  and  of  introducing 
the  pupils  to  the  use  of  topics,  topical  outlines  for  the 
study  of  the  town  should  be  given.  These  topics  may 
include  terms  which  have  been  taught,  and  the  pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  use  geographical  language  in 
their  recitation,  which  should  be  made  without  ques- 
tions. The  following  topics,  so  far  as  they  belong  to 
the  town  studied,  may  be  used:  — 

1.  Outline:  boundary  (bays,  capes). 

2.  Size:  length  and  breadth. 

3.  Surface :  — 

(1)  Mountains,  hills,  ranges,  jieaks. 

(2)  Valleys,  plains. 

4.  Drainage:  — 

(1)  Brooks,  rivers : 

Source,  outlet,  branches. 

(2)  Ponds,  lakes : 

Outlets,  inlets. 

5.  Climate:  — 

JSIoisture,  temperature. 

6.  Soil. 

7.  Productions:  — 

Animal,  vegetable,  mineral. 

8.  Industries. 


146  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

9.  Exports  and  Imports:  — 
Railroads. 
10.  Interesting  facts  of  history. 

Study  of  Maps.  —  The  study  of  maps  of  known  places 
may  well  follow  the  preparatory  observation  lessons, 
and  should  precede  the  study  or  drawing  of  maps  of 
continents  and  countries.  The  maps  studied  should  be 
of  places  with  which  the  pupils  are  familiar,  or  which 
they  have  seen.  They  should  be  studied  with  reference 
to  relative  distances  (scale)  and  the  location  of  known 
objects.  They  should  be  compared  with  maps  made  by 
the  pupils,  and  be  a  means  of  reviewing  lessons  upon 
physical  features. 

Moulding-Board.  —  Moulding  has  the  same  place  in 
teaching  geography  as  plan  and  map  drawing ;  i.e..,  for 
illustration.  It  may  be  used  in  teaching  the  natural 
bodies  of  land  and  water,  and  other  parts  of  local 
geography  after  the  real  objects  have  hee^i  observed  ;  also 
in  making  relief  models  and  in  representing  the  parts 
of  a  continent  or  section.  It  will  be  found  especially 
useful  in  representing  the  physical  features  of  a  town, 
adding  with  bits  of  cardboard  and  sticks  the  principal 
roads,  houses,  etc. 

GENERAL  LESSONS  FROM  GLOBE   AND  MAPS. 

Earth  as  a  Whole.  —  In  the  fourth  year,  elementary  les- 
sons upon  the  globe  should  be  begun.  The  subjects  to 
be  taught  at  this  time  are  as  follows :  — 

1.  F()UM  OF  THE  Earth. 

Illustrate  with  clay  or  croquet  ball  flattened  at  two  opposite 
sides. 


GEOGRAPHY.  147 

2.  Motions  of  the  Earth. 

Use  knitting-needle  or  wooden  needle  for  axis,  and  teach 
the  effects  of  rotation  and  i-evolution.  Only  the  most 
general  and  simple  facts  should  be  taught  at  this  time. 
Teach  equator,  poles,  and  hemisphere. 

3.  Land  and  Water  Hemispheres. 

Draw  a  line  around  a  globe  so  as  to  lead  pupils  to  see  that 
most  of  the  land  is  in  one  hemisphere  and  most  of  the 
water  in  another. 

4.  Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres. 

Show  with  a  globe  the  relative  amount  of  land  and  water 
north  and  south  of  the  equator. 

5.  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres. 

Why  called  old  and  new  worlds? 

6.  Bodies  of  Land. 

The  names  and  relative  size  and  position  of  the  continents 
should  be  taught  from  a  mapped  globe.  Lead  the 
pupils  to  discover  similarity  and  difference  in  shape,  and 
cliaracter  of  outline. 

7.  Bodies  of  Water. 

Teach  the  name  and  relative  size  and  position  of  the 
oceans  from  the  globe.  Lead  the  pupils  to  see  which 
are  in  the  Eastern,  and  which  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

8.  Climate, 

Hot,  cold,  and  temperate  parts. 

9.  Productions  and  Commerce. 

A  few  of  the  principal  productions  should  be  named  and 
the  climate  and  localities  in  which  they  are  produced. 
Some  ideas  of  commerce,  both  domestic  and  foreign, 
should  be  given  by  showing  where  and  how  the  various 
productions  are  carried. 

Some  of  these  elementary  lessons  may  best  be  given 
by  drawing  with  a  crayon  upon  a  plain  black  globe. 

Contments.  —  When  the  first  lessons  upon  the  earth 
as  a  whole  are  completed,  the  study  of  continents  should 


148  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

be  begun.  Books  may  now  be  i)laced  in  the  hands  of 
pupils,  but  every  lesson  should  first  be  taught  from  a 
mapped  globe  or  a  good  outline  map. 

An  introduction  to  the  map  of  the  hemispheres  and 
continents  is  made  by  opening  a  globe  so  that  its  hemi- 
spheres may  be  placed  side  by  side,  and  be  compared 
with  outline  maps  of  the  same. 

In  these  lessons  only  the  most  general  features  should 
be  considered,  somewhat  as  follows  :  — 

(1)  Position  of  continent  on  globe:  show  what  part  is  hot, 
cold,  temperate ;  direction  from  other  continents.  (2)  Relative 
size :  compare  with  other  continents.  (3)  Ontline :  character  of 
coast  line  compared  with  other  continents  ;  principal  indentations ; 
outline  drawn  by  pupils  from  cardboard  models.  [See  JVIap- 
Drawing.]  (4)  Mountain  systems  .  approximate  length  and  width; 
comparative  height ;  direction  of  slopes.  (5)  Principal  rivers  and 
lakes :  only  a  few  of  the  largest ;  source  and  outlet ;  relative 
length.  (6)  Most  valuable  productions  :  where  obtained.  (7)  Im- 
portant countries :  position  in  continent ;  comparative  size.  (8) 
Best  known  cities:  position;  comparative  size.  (9)  People  :  races; 
occupations.  [Reading  of  such  books  as  "Seven  Little  Sisters" 
and  "  Each  and  AH."]     (10)  Special  and  peculiar  features. 

After  one  continent  has  been  studied,  points  of  re- 
semblance and  difference  should  be  constantly  referred 
to,  as  direction  and  length  of  mountain  systems,  size  of 
rivers,  condition  of  people,  etc.  In  giving  the  special 
and  peculiar  features  of  a  continent,  select  those  which 
will  be  of  most  interest  to  the  pupils,  as  volcanoes,  pyr- 
amids, curious  animals  and  plants. 

After  the  outline  is  traced,  it  may  be  kept  for  the 
purpose  of  inserting  the  various  features  as  they  are 
studied.     The  order  of  study  is  indicated  in  the  follow- 


GEOGKAPHY.  149 

ing  topics,  which  may  need  some  changes  and  additions 
for  some  of  the  continents. 

1.  Position. 
iSurrounding  water  and  land. 
Latitude,  zones. 
II.   COXTOUR.       " 

Comparative  shape,  regularity  of  coast  line. 

III.  Size,  compared  with  other  continents. 

IV.  Surface. 

1.  Highlands:  I '"''''"^'""'- 

( plateaus. 

2.  Lowlands:    5  valleys. 

( 2)lains. 
V.  IxLANi)  Waters. 
Large  lakes  and  rivers. 
VI.  Climate. 

Comparative  temperature  and  moisture. 
VII.  Productioxs. 

Vegetable,  animal,  mineral. 
VIII.  People. 

Races,  employments,  and  customs. 
IX.  Political  Divisions. 
Countries,  large  cities. 

Countries  and  Sections. —  After  the  general  features 
of  the  continents  have  been  studied,  the  more  impor- 
tant countries  and  sections  should  be  taken  up,  begin- 
ning with  the  United  States.  The  sections  should  be 
studied  and  recited  by  topics  as  before,  the  topics  being 
more  minute  than  those  of  the  continents.  The  study 
should  also  be  pursued  in  connection  with  map-drawing. 
The  pupils'  own  State  and  section  should  be  known 
much  more  thoroughly  than  other  sections,  and  should 
therefore  be  reviewed  more  frequently.  The  indus- 
tries, states  of  society,  commerce,  etc.,  of  other  coun- 


150  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

tries  should  be  constantly  compared  with  those  of  our 
own  country,  so  as  to  make  the  facts  learned  seem  as 
real  as  possible. 

Interesting  facts  of  history  also  should  be  given  in 
connection  with  places,  and,  in  studying  about  the  cities 
and  productions  of  a  country  and  the  occupations  of 
the  people,  constant  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
marine  column  of  the  daily  or  weekly  newspaper,  where 
will  be  found  the  destination  of  vessels  and  the  ports 
from  which  vessels  have  sailed,  together  with  what  is 
exported  and  imported. 

Frequent  use  of  pictures  should  be  made  in  teaching 
the  physical  features  of  a  country,  its  cities,  and  the 
manners,  customs,  and  occupations  of  the  people.  Scrap- 
books  or  alphabetical  letter-files  may  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preserving  pictures  cut  from  illustrated  books 
and  papers.  With  the  aid  of  pupils  any  teacher  can 
make  a  large  collection  of  pictures  which  will  be  of 
great  value  in  giving  interest  and  vividness  to  the  sub- 
jects taught.  Care  should  be  taken  to  so  arrange  the 
pictures  that  those  of  a  particular  section  can  be  easily 
found  at  any  time. 

In  teaching  and  in  giving  information  in  any  part  of 
geography,  let  the  facts  be  linked  together  as  much  as 
possible,  especially  the  facts  of  cause  with  those  of  effect. 
Thus  there  should  be  given  the  names  and  descriptions 
of  animals  together  with  the  climate  and  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  country  in  which  they  live ;  the  position  of 
a  country,  and  its  climate  ;  the  commercial  and  manufac- 
turing cities,  and  their  peculiar  location  with  reference 
to  mines,  rivers,  etc. ;  the  physical  conditions  of  a  coun- 
try, and  the  character  of  the  people. 


GEOGRAPHY.  151 

On  many  accounts  it  will  be  better  to  take  up  large 
sections  for  study  rather  than  small  sections  or  single 
states.  Among  the  advantages  of  studying  large  sec- 
tions  are  (1)  the  relative  size  and  position  of  the  states 
may  be  better  observed ;  (2)  the  climate,  soil,  and  pro- 
ductions may  be  better  compared  and  remembered;  (3) 
trivial  and  unimportant  details  are  less  likely  to  be 
dwelt  upon.  The  last  point  is  one  of  great  importance. 
The  really  important  features  of  any  distant  state  or 
country  are  few,  and  the  time  and  strength  of  the  pupils 
should  be  given  to  these  to  the  exclusion  of  such  details 
as  the  heights  of  mountains,  the  length  of  rivers,  abso- 
lute areas,  capes,  small  rivers,  and  insignificant  towns. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  those  features  of  a  coun- 
try or  section  should  be  most  emphasized  which  most 
affect  and  represent  the  life  of  the  country  and  which 
most  concern  ourselves  both  as  a  country  and  as  indi- 
viduals. With  this  view,  topics  relating  to  life  should  be 
especially  noticed  in  the  stud}^  such  as  climate  and  its 
causes,  occupations  and  habits  of  the  people,  land  and 
water  communications  and  what  is  carried  over  them, 
government,  and  important  cities.  Certain  sections 
also  demand  more  attention  than  others,  depending 
ujjon  their  importance  and  their  relation  and  near- 
ness to  us.  Next  to  our  own  State  and  country,  those 
countries  should  be  most  carefully  studied  which  have 
most  to  do  with  us  and  which  are  the  most  highly 
civilized. 

The  following  topics  may  be  a  guide  for  study  and 
recitation  upon  countries  and  sections :  — 


l'^2  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

I.  Position. 

1.  Boundaries:  5^*"^- 

c  water. 

2.  Latitude,  longitude,  zone. 
II.  Size. 

1.  Length  and  breadth. 

2.  Relative  size. 

III.  Surface 

r  systems. 

^mountains:  J  ^'^^g^^- 
L  Highlands:^  peaks 

Ljilateaus.  (volcanoes). 

2.  Lowlands. 

Plains :  |  "^terior. 
( coast. 

IV.  Drainage. 

1.  Water-partings. 

f  source. 

2.  Rivers:]  direction. 

principal  branches. 
'-  uses. 

3.  Lakes. 

Location  :    \  ^^^*^' 
(  fresh. 

V.  Climate. 

{temperature, 
moisture, 
healthfulness^ 
f  latitude, 
elevation. 
2.  Causes:  L^^^rents  :  \'^'- 

I  water. 
I  nearness  to  sea. 
VI.  Productions. 

1.  Fertile  and  sterile  sections. 

2.  Mineral,  vegetable,  animal. 


GEOGRAPHY.  163 

VII.  People. 

1.  Races.  T  agriculture. 

2.  Occupations :  j  manufactures. 

^  commerce : 

domestic,  foreign, 
exports  —  where  sent, 
imports  —  from  what  place, 
means : 

railroads,  rivers,  etc. 

3.  Manners  and  customs. 

4.  Education. 

5.  Government. 

6.  Religion. 

VIII.  Political  Divisions. 
States. 

Important  cities  and  towns. 
For  what  noted  ? 

Mathematical  and  Physical  Features.  —  In  addition 
to  the  elementary  lessons  upon  the  earth  as  a  whole, 
given  in  the  fourth  year,  there  should  be  given  in  the 
higher  grades  more  advanced  lessons,  including  motions 
of  the  earth,  latitude,  longitude,  and  some  physical 
features.  As  much  of  the  following  outline  as  can  be 
understood  should  be  taught  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
years,  the  more  difficult  subjects  to  be  left  until  the 
first  part  of  the  eighth  year,  when  the  whole  should  be 
reviewed.  The  facts  learned  should  be  applied  to  par- 
ticular sections  as  they  are  taken  up. 

I.   Form  of  the  Earth. 
Four  proofs. 
II.   Motions  ok  the  Earth. 
1.  Rotation  (evidences). 
Axis,  poles,  equator. 


154                             METHODS   OF   TEACHING.  i 

I 

1 

Effects  of  rotation  :  \ 

a.  with  axis  horizontal.  » 

b.  with  axis  upright.  1 

c.  with  axis  oblique.  i 
2.  Revolution  (evidences).  ', 

Effects  of  revolution  :  ■ 

o.  with  axis  upright.  'j 

b.  with  axis  oblique.  i 

Tropics  and  polar  circles :  cause  of  location.  \ 

Zones,  parallels,  meridians. 

Variation  in  the  length  of  day  and  night  in  different          i 

parts  of  the  earth.  * 

III.  Latitude  and  Longitude.  ; 

1.  Length  of  degree  on  large  circles ;  on  small  circles.  I 

2.  Latitude ;  measured  where  and  from  what  ?  j 

3.  Longitude;  measured  where  and  from  what? 

...  ■» 

4.  Difference  in  longitude  and  time.  ; 

IV.  Land  Surface.  ■ 

1.  Formation  of  continents.  j 

2.  Coral  formations.  1 

3.  Volcanic  effects.  j 

4.  Causes  of  depression  and  elevation  of  surface. 

V.  Winds.  I 

1.  General  cause. 

2.  Kinds  and  causes  of  each  :  \ 

(1)  Trade  winds. 

(2)  Monsoons.  j 

(3)  Cyclones. 

(4)  Local  winds.  , 

3.  Uses  of  winds.  . 
VI    Water  Movements.  ' 

1.  Springs :  kinds  and  causes.  i 

2.  Waves,  what  and  how  caused.  I 

3.  Tides:  '            ] 

Kinds,  causes  of  each. 

4.  Ocean  currents  :  j 

(1)  Kinds  and  causes.  •       \ 

(2)  Polar  and  eciuatorial.  ; 


J 


GEOGlIArHY.  155 

(3)  Principal  currents. 

(4)  Influence  in  navigation. 

(5)  Influence  upon  climate. 

(G)  Take  iiifaginary  voyages  to  show  effects  of  ocean 
currents. 
VII.  Climate. 

Formation  of  dew,  mist,  fog,  clouds,  rain,  snow,  frost,  hail. 
Amount  of  rain,  how  affected  in  various  parts  of  the  earth. 
Temperature  depends  upon  what. 
VIII.  Soil  (sub-soil). 

1.  Thickness. 

2.  Composition. 

(1)  Loam.  1 

(2)  Sand.  I 

(;})  Gravel.  >  Character  of  each. 

(4)  Clay. 

(5)  Organic  matter. 

3.  How  made. 

(1)  Water  freezing  in  crevices  of  rocks. 

(2)  Effects  of  atmosphei'e. 

(3)  Effects  of  running  w  ater. 

(4)  Effects  of  roots  and  rain. 

(5)  Effects  of  insects. 

4.  Kinds. 

(1)  Calcareous.  > 

(2)  Sandy.  ]■  Character,  and  how  made. 

(3)  Clayey.         J 

5.  Fertility. 

(1)  Depends  upon  what. 

(2)  DegTee  of  fertility. 

G.  Adaptation  of  soil  to  different  plants. 

These  subjects  should  be  carefully  taught  each  day 
before  they  are  "  studied "  in  a  book.  For  means  of 
illustrating  and  teaching  some  of  the  topics  the  teacher 
should  consult  good  reference  books  and  use  simple 
apparatus. 


156  METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 

To  teach  the  motions  of  the  earth  and  their  effects 
in  producing  a  variation  in  the  length  of  day  and  night 
and  change  of  seasons,  use  a  ball  with  a  cardboard  disk 
to  separate  the  light  and  dark  hemispheres.  The  ball 
should  have  a  knitting-needle  for  an  axis,  and  be  placed 
in  various  positions  before  a  lighted  lamp  to  represent 
the  sun.  By  rotating  the  ball  with  the  axis  in  an  up- 
right and  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  placing  the  disk 
between  the  light  and  dark  hemispheres,  there  may  be 
shown  the  lighted  hemispheres  and  the  relative  length 
of  day  and  night,  if  the  axis  of  the  earth  were  in  those 
positions.  Incline  the  axis  2S^  degrees  towards  the 
north,  making  both  motions  of  the  ball  (rotation  and 
revolution),  and  there  are  represented  many  useful 
facts,  such  as  the  relative  length  of  day  and  night  in 
different  parts  of  the  earth,  three  causes  of  change  of 
seasons,  cause  of  position  of  tropics  and  polar  circles, 
difference  of  longitude  and  time,  and  the  position  of  the 
sun  in  various  parts  of  the  earth  at  different  times  of 
the  year.  To  teach  some  of  these  and  other  points,  it 
would  be  well  to  have  a  blacked  ball  upon  which  chalk- 
marks  may  be  made. 

To  teach  the  causes  of  winds,  place  a  bit  of  lighted 
candle  on  a  piece  of  glass.  Over  it  place  a  lamp-chim- 
ney so  that  the  chimney  will  project  over  the  edge  of 
the  glass.  By  holding  a  tliread  at  the  bottom  and  at 
the  top  of  the  chimney,  the  facts  may  be  observed  that 
cold  air  moves  toward  the  flame  below,  and  that  warm 
air  ascends.  From  this  illustration,  and  from  others 
showing  the  unequal  heating  of  the  earth's  surface  by 
the  sun,  the  pupils  may  learn  the  causes  of  some  local 
winds,  and  of  the  surface  and  upper  currents,  north  and 


GEOGRAPHY.  157 

south,  changed  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  into  con- 
stant northeast  and  southeast  winds,  or  trade  winds. 

Map-Drawing-.  —  After  careful  practice  in  plan- 
drawing,  and  observation  of  good  maps  of  the  town  and 
county,  the  pupils  are  prepared  to  begin  the  drawing  of 
maps.  In  giving  the  first  lessons  upon  continents  the 
globe  should  be  used,  and  it  would  be  well  for  the  teacher 
to  prepare  pasteboard  outlines  of  the  continents.  These 
outlines  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  relative  shape  and 
size  of  the  continents,  and  afford  at  the  same  time 
models  for  tracing.  When  the  outline  of  a  continent  is 
traced,  tlie  different  parts  may  be  represented  as  they 
are  studied,  as  mountain  systems,  rivers,  and  produc- 
tions. 

In  the  sixth  year,  when  the  study  of  the  United  States 
is  taken,  the  pupils  should  draw  the  outline,  first  by 
copying,  and  afterwards  from  memory.  Fine  and 
artistic  efforts  should  not  be  attempted  in  any  part  of 
the  course,  —  the  object  being  merely  to  fix  in  the  mind 
facts  that  are  learned.  Direction,  distance,  and  loca- 
tion are  in  this  way  impressed  upon  the  mind  as  they 
can  be  in  no  other  way.  The  first  efforts  in  imitation 
may  be  by  tracing  upon  thin  paper.  Afterwards  the 
pupils  may  attempt  to  copy  with  the  map  before  them, 
and  then  see  what  they  can  do  from  memory.  The  first 
attempts  at  memory  drawing  will  be  very  crude,  but  the 
pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  try,  and  generally  it  mil 
be  found  to  be  agreeable  employment.  The  first  topic 
in  the  study  of  the  United  States  will  be  "  outline." 
At  the  time  of  recitation  each  pupil  may  draw  the 
outline  upon  the  slate  or  board  from  memory,  and  indi- 
cate the  boundaries  —  natural  and  artificial  —  by  initial 


158  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

letters.  For  example,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Chesapeake 
Bay,  and  New  Brunswick  may  be  indicated  by  G.  M., 
C.  B.,  N.  B.  Day  by  day  the  map  should  grow  as  new 
topics  are  taken  up.  A  progressive  map  may  be  kept 
by  the  pupils  on  paper  or  placed  upon  the  board ;  but 
they  should  be  ready  to  draw  each  day  all  that  has  been 
previously  studied ;  so  that  at  the  close  of  the  lessons  a 
completed  map  may  be  made  by  every  pupil,  embracing 
the  principal  mountains,  rivers,  cities,  and  production 
areas. 

In  the  seventh  year,  when  latitude  and  longitude 
have  been  studied,  the  preparatory  study  may  include 
parallels  and  meridians.  With  the  book  open,  the 
teacher  by  skilful  questioning  may  draw  out  from  the 
pupils  many  facts  in  regard  to  distances  and  latitude ; 
afterwards  by  a  little  direction  the  pupils  may  draw, 
free-hand,  the  parallels  and  meridians,  which  will  be 
sufficiently  accurate  for  all  practical  purposes.  They 
will  then  be  prepared  to  draw  the  outline,  imitating  the 
map  in  the  book.  When  this  has  been  done  two  or 
three  times,  the  map  may  be  drawn  from  memory, 
without  the  parallels  and  meridians.  In  recitation,  also, 
the  drawing  of  parallels  and  meridians  from  memory 
should  not  be  attempted,  the  outline  only  being  drawn, 
with  no  construction  lines.  In  the  pupils'  study,  in 
which  the  map  is  drawn  by  parallels  and  meridians,  the 
shape  and  relative  dimensions  of  the  country  are  im- 
pressed upon  the  mind,  and  when  they  draw  the  outline 
from  memory,  the  shape  and  dimensions  are  found  to 
be  sufficiently  accurate. 

It  may  be  well  sometimes  to  indicate  the  high  and 
low  land  by  different  colored  crayons,  as  for  instance, 


GEOGRAPHY.  159 

shades  of  brown  and  green.  When  the  topic  "  produc- 
tions "  is  reached,  areas  of  the  principal  products 
may  be  indicated  by  enclosed  lines.  The  climate  and 
animals  of  a  given  section  may  be  indicated  by  small 
printed  or  written  words. 

Memory  maps  of  any  given  subject,  such  as  surface, 
drainage,  productions,  or  cities,  may  be  called  for  at  any 
time,  and  the  pupils  by  constant  practice  should  be 
ready  to  answer  the  demand.  For  example,  a  river 
map  of  Europe  may  be  drawn  from  memory,  as  a  review 
lesson,  the  names  or  their  initials  being  written  or 
printed.  In  the  same  way  examinations  may  be  made. 
More  can  be  indicated  upon  a  map  in  a  single  hour  than 
could  be  written  out  in  three  hours. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  drawing  of  maps,  both  in 
study  and  recitation,  constitutes  an  important  part  of 
the  work  in  geography  as  here  laid  down.  The  reasons 
for  emphasizing  map-drawing  will  become  apparent  as  a 
saving  of  time,  an  increased  interest  in  the  study,  and 
superior  results  are  seen. 

The  Recitation.  —  What  has  been  said  of  the  advan- 
tages of  topical  study  and  recitation  applies  with  pecu- 
liar force  to  geography.  Outlines,  more  or  less  minute, 
should  be  given  to  the  class  as  a  guide  to  study.  The 
same  outlines  should  also  be  a  guide  to  each  pupil's 
recitation,  the  teacher  giving  as  little  assistance  as  pos- 
sible. A  review  of  the  previous  lesson  or  lessons  may 
be  given  during  the  first  few  minutes  of  the  recitation, 
so  as  to  connect  together  related  subjects. 

When  a  pupil  has  told  all  that  he  can  of  a  given  topic, 
encourage  the  rest  of  the  pupils  to  ask  questions  of  the 
one  who  has  recited.     It  will,  of  course,  be  understood 


160  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

that  the  answers  to  such  questions,  as  well  as  the  facts 
given  in  recitation,  need  not  necessarily  be  found  in  the 
text-book,  but  may  be  gathered  from  all  reference  books 
to  wliich  the  pupils  have  access.  Very  often  a  part  of 
the  class  may  be  sent  to  the  board,  and  the  rest  take 
slates,  for  tlie  purpose  of  drawing  the  outline  of  the 
country  studied,  and  indicating,  or  representing,  such 
facts  as  have  been  learned,  as  mountains,  rivers,  cities, 
etc.,  each  pupil  reciting  as  all  draw.  In  drawing  the 
outline  of  a  country,  for  example,  one  pupil  may  men- 
tion the  body  of  adjacent  water  or  land  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  boundary  line  as  the  class  draw;  then 
another  pupil  may  continue  the  description.  They  may 
proceed  in  like  manner  with  the  other  topics,  following 
the  order  in  which  they  were  learned.  In  this  form  of 
recitation  it  will  be  seen  that  the  teacher  says  very  lit- 
tle, most  of  the  talking  being  done  by  the  pupils. 

The  question  and  answer  method,  by  which  the  teacher 
uses  many  more  words  than  the  pupils,  should  very 
rarely  be  used.  After  a  country  has  been  studied,  a 
page  of  map-questions  may  be  given  out  for  a  lesson. 
In  the  recitation  of  such  a  lesson  one  pupil  may  read 
the  questions  for  the  pupils  whom  the  teacher  designates 
to  answer.  Or  each  pupil  may  be  asked  to  write  five 
questions,  and  after  he  has  answered  one  he  may  give 
another  to  another  pupil,  naming  the  pupil  who  is  to 
answer  after  the  question  is  given. 

In  the  map-questions  and  in  other  lessons  the  outline 
wall-maps  may  sometimes  be  used,  one  pupil  pointing 
out  the  places  named.  Generally,  however,  the  ansAvers 
should  be  given  without  the  map  being  in  sight.  An 
occasional  exercise  with  the  outline  map  will  be  found 


GEOGRAPHY.  161 

profitable,  in  which  the  teacher  points  upon  the  map  to 
certain  places,  which  the  pupils  name  or  about  which 
they  tell  Avhat  they  know. 

Geographical  Reading.  —  After  a  subject  or  country 
has  been  studied  by  topics,  there  should  be  class  reading 
of  journeys  and  other  descriptions  for  the  purpose  of 
gaining  interesting  and  useful  information.  At  least 
one-third  of  the  time  given  to  geography,  and  some  of 
the  time  set  apart  for  supplementary  reading,  should  be 
given  to  such  reading.  It  is  not  necessary  for  every 
pupil  in  the  class  to  have  a  book.  Three  books,  or  even 
one-book,  passed  from  one  pupil  to  another,  will  suffice. 
Half  a  dozen  good  books  of  travel  upon  the  countries 
studied  should  be  accessible  to  every  teacher  of  the 
grammar  grade.  They  will  do  much  to  give  interest  to 
the  study  and  direct  the  future  reading  of  the  pupils. 


162  METHODS   OF  TE/iCHING. 


HISTORY. 


The  chief  objects  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  teaching  his- 
tory  are  :  (1)  to  create  an  interest  in  history  and  a  taste 
for  reading  it ;  (2)  to  teach  important  facts  of  history 
so  that  they  will  be  remembered ;  (3)  to  show  the  relation 
of  past  events  to  the  present  in  such  a  way  as  to  prepare 
pupils  for  the  varied  duties  of  life  ;  (4)  to  cultivate  the 
powers  of  memory,  imagination,  and  reflection ;  (5)  to 
cultivate  language. 

Preparatory  Work.  —  Story-telling  and  story-yead- 
ing  should  precede  the  formal  study  of  history,  and  may 
be  begun  very  early  in  the  Course.  True  stories  of  cele- 
brated persons,  especially  of  their  child  life,  will  be 
interesting  and  instructive  to  children  of  the  primary 
school.  During  the  fourth  and  fifth  years  in  school  the 
stories  should  continue  to  be  largely  about  persons,  and 
may  be  somewhat  disconnected  ;  that  is,  no  special  ef- 
fort need  be  made  to  follow  in  chronological  order  the 
history  of  our  country,  the  main  purpose  being  to  make 
enduring  impressions  upon  the  pupils,  of  the  principal 
characters  in  history,  and  to  create  an  interest  in  them. 
The  story  may  be  sometimes  told  by  the  teacher,  and 
sometimes  read  after  a  few  of  the  principal  facts  have' — 
been  told.  Sometimes  one  pupil  may  read  the  story  to 
the  rest,  and  sometimes  —  perhaps  oftener  than  in  any 
other  way — the  pupils  may  read  in  turn  at  sight.  All 
of  these  exercises  should  be  followed  by  talking  and 
writing  upon  the  subjects  given,  in  order  to  encourage  \ 
attention,  to  fix  the  points  in  the  minds  of  pupils,  and  to 
cultivate  the  power  of  expression. 


HISTORY.  163 

During  the  sixth  and  seventh  years  in  school,  story 
telling  and  reading  should  be  continued,  but  in  a  more 
systematic  manner  and  with  a  wider  purpose  in  view 
than  during  the  preceding  years.  To  teach  what  history 
is,  and  to  lead  the  pupils  into  the  possession  of  histori- 
cal ideas  as  a  basis  for  subsequent  study,  will  now  be 
the  purpose  of  the  teacher.  Ideas  of  peaceful  life,  of 
war,  and  of  government,  are  best  gained  by  observation 
of  present  aifairs,  by  reading  and  hearing  what  has 
transpired  in  the  past,  and  by  comparing  what  is.  heard 
with  what  is  known  from  observation. 

Begin,  then,  by  calling  the  attention  of  pupils  to  the 
necessary  accompaniments  of  peaceful  life,  —  useful  em- 
ployments, schools,  government,  religion,  etc.  Lead 
them  to  state  in  detail  what  they  see  in  every-day  life 
about  them,  and  what  is  transpiring  at  the  present  time 
in  places  remote  from  them.  Several  talks  of  this  kind 
will  bring  out  all  the  essential  ideas  of  peaceful  life,  and 
make  the  pupils  realize  that  history  is  a  real  thing  of 
the  present  as  well  as  of  the  remote  past.  When  this 
has  been  done,  lead  them  to  compare  the  present  condi- 
tion of  their  neighborhood  and  country  with  what  it 
was  in  early  colonial  times.  Have  them  read  stories  i 
of  the  early  settlements,  dwelling  especially  upon  the 
privations  that  were  endured,  the  absence  of  schools, 
railroads,  and  telegraph,  the  primitive  home  life,  and 
the  means  of  travel. 

The  local  history  of  the  town  or  neighborhood  should 
be  first  considered.  There  are  few  places  which  have 
not  most  interesting  stories  connected  with  them.  The 
more  personal  and  real  these  stories  are,  the  better. 
After  the  pupils  have  read  and  talked  about  the  early 


164  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

history  of  their  own  neighborhood  and  State,  let  them 
do  the  same  with  the  history  of  other  places,  it  being 
kept  constantly  in  mind  that  the  story  should  convey  a 
vivid  impression  of  real  life.  Pictures  will  aid  the  pupil  | 
to  get  a  clear  idea  of  some  things  which  cannot  be  well 
described  by  words.  Photographs  of  places,  and  pic- 
tures cut  from  illustrated  papers  and  pasted  upon  card- 
board, coins,  and  relics  of  every  description,  —  all  will 
be  found  to  be  a  valuable  aid  to  the  teacher  of  history. 

The  same  method  of  teaching  ideas  of  war  should  be 
used  as  is  used  in  teaching  ideas  of  peace.  In  the  stories 
read  and  talked  about,  the  causes  of  wars,  their  necessity, 
and  the  methods  of  warfare  should  be  considered.  It 
would  not  be  well  at  this  stage  to  dwell  much  in  detail 
upon  campaigns  and  battles. 

Ideas  of  government,  the  objects  of  government,  the 
different  kinds  of  government,  and  the  duties  of  citizens, 
should  be  taught  in  connection  with  stories  illustrating 
both  peace  and  war,  and  with  what  exists  in  their  own 
town.  State,  and  country. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  year,  one  ele- 
mentary book  of  United  States  history  may  be  read 
through  in  regular  order,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  a 
connected  account.  As  before,  the  reading  should  be 
followed  by  talking  and  writing,  in  which  the  principal 
events  are  brought  out  clearly  in  the  pupils'  own  lan- 
guage. All  the  while,  the  geography  of  the  section 
talked  about  should  be  carefully  studied  from  outline 
maps.  Progressive  maps,  with  changes  in  the  boundary, 
may  be  drawn  by  the  pupils.  Chronological  tables  may 
also  be  made,  consisting  of  the  dates  of  the  most  impor- 
tant events.     If   the  dates  of  five  or  six  events  of  a 


HISTORY.  165 

century  are  kept  in  mind,  all  other  events  may  be  distin- 
guished as  occurring  before  or  after  one  of  these  dates. 
For  example,  if  the  time  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims 
is  known,  some  other  events  could  be  remembered  as 
occurring  either  before  or  after  that  event. 

Topical  Study.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  year 
in  school,  history  should  be  taken  up  as  a  distinct 
study.  Instead  of  one  book  being  used  for  study,  it  is 
better  to  liave  several,  each  pupil  deriving  the  benefit 
of  the  study  of  others  from  different  books.  Topics 
should  be  arranged  carefully  by  the  teacher,  and  placed- 
upon  the  blackboard.  These  topics  can  be  copied  by 
the  pupils  into  topic-books  provided  for  the  purpose. 
Some  time  will  be  needed  and  not  a  little  direct  assist- 
ance before  the  pupils  can  use  the  topics  as  they  should 
be  used  in  study,  and  before  they  can  give  long  and 
connected  statements  in  tlieir  own  words. 

The  following  general  outline  may  be  a  guide  of  work 
to  be  attempted  during  the  eighth  and  ninth  years :  — 

I.  America  before  Columbus. 

Traces  of  inhabitants  :  Northmeu. 

II.     DiSCOVERKRS    AND    EXPLORERS. 

1.  Spanish,  "j 

ng  IS   .   y  Important  discoveries  and  explorations. 

3.  French,     i 

4.  Dutch.     J 

III.   English  Settlers. 

1.  In  New  England. 

2.  In  Middle  States. 

3.  In  Southern  States. 

(1)  Permanent  settlements. 

(2)  Cause  of  settlers  coming. 

(3)  Life  of  people. 

Manners,  customs,  laws,  religion. 


166  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

(4)  Government. 

(5)  Growth  and  change  during  colonial  period. 

(6)  Wars. 

IV.   The  French  in  North  America. 
V.   The  Revolution. 
VI.   The  Confederation. 

1.  Reasons  for. 

2.  Principal  events. 

3.  Defects. 

VII.   The  United  States. 

1.  The  Constitution. 

(1)  Formation  and  adoption. 

(2)  Features. 

(3)  Amendments. 

2.  Presidential  administrations. 

(1)  When  begun,  length. 

(2)  Principal  events. 

3.  Internal  progress. 

(1)  Population. 

(2)  Industries. 

(3)  Productions. 

(4)  Exports. 

(5)  Education. 

(6)  Inventions. 

4.  Wars. 

0)  England  (1812).  \  "^^ 

(2)  Mexico.  >!    11  •     •     1  i. 
,^i  „.   .,                       1   irmcipal  events. 

(3)  Civil.  1^  j^^^^^^^ 

The  topics  of  the  general  outline  will  have  to  be 
elaborated  somewhat  as  the  various  subjects  are 
reached.  The  following  topics,  for  example,  may  be 
given  upon  "  The  P>ench  in  North  America." 

1.    The  territory  acquii'ed. 

(1)  What  region. 

(2)  By  whom  discovered  and  settled. 


HISTORY.  167 

I 
I 

(3)  First  settlements.  ' 

(4)  Time  (relative).  I 

2.  Government. 

(1)  Kind. 

(2)  Results.  i 

3.  Loss  of  territory.  : 

(1)  Claims.  j 

(2)  Allies.  I 

(3)  Opponents.  < 

(4)  Parts  abandoned,  and  when.  ■ 

The  following  topics  for  the  study  of  wars  may  be  i 

used: —  i 

1.    Parties.  i 

•2.   Cause.  \ 

3.  Occasion .  i 

4.  Elements  of  strength  and  weakness.  j 

5.  The  campaigns. 

(1)  Plan.  j 

a.  Objective  points.     Where?     Why? 

b.  Routes.  ! 

c.  Forces  and  commanders. 

(1.    Advantages  and  difficulties.  ! 

(2)  Movements.  i 

(3)  Decisive  battles.  ! 

(4)  Results.  I 

(5)  Consequences. 

6.  Results  of  the  war. 

7.  Consequences  of  the  war.  -; 

The  Recitation A  short  time  should  be  taken  at  I 

the   beginning   of    each   recitation  for  reviewing  such 
to[)ics  of  past  lessons  as  have  any  connection  with  the 

lessons  of  the  day.     Such  reviews  will  also  fix  in  mind  ; 

the  important  facts  which  have  been  studied.  ' 

To  bring  out  the  points  clearly,  and   to  make  the  i 

study  interesting,  maps  and  diagrams  should  be  in  con-  ! 


168  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

stant  use  in  the  recitation.  Engraved  maps  may  be 
consulted,  but  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
drawing  of  maps  by  the  pupils.  Progressive  maps,  or 
maps  which  grow  with  the  study  of  a  section,  may  be 
made  from  day  to  day,  and  the  pupils  should  be  ready 
to  draw  at  any  time  rapid  sketches,  which  will  illus- 
trate the  relative  position  of  places,  the  movements  of 
armies,  or  the  growth  of  territory. 

In  recitation,  the  pupil  should  be  expected  to  take  a 
topic  and  tell,  in  his  own  language,  what  he  has  ascer- 
tained in  regard  to  it,  with  as  little  interruption  as  pos- 
sible. After  he  has  finished  his  statement,  the  other 
pupils  may  add  anything  which  has  been  omitted,  cor- 
rect any  misstatement  which  has  been  made,  or  ask 
questions  to  bring  out  the  points  more  clearly.  If 
there  are  several  different  books  in  the  hands  of  the 
class,  the  statements  made  by  the  various  members  will 
vary  considerably.  One  will  give  a  story  not  told  by 
the  pupil  who  first  recited.  Another  will  show  the  re- 
lation which  the  event  described  bears  to  others.  Still 
another  will  derive  from  the  event  a  practical  lesson  for 
our  own  people  and  time.  All  will  help  to  make  the 
story  more  complete  and  more  likely  to  be  remembered. 
Emphasize  especially  those  features  wliich  are  directly 
related  to  present  affairs,  or  which  may  lead  the 
pupils  into  a  higher  appreciation  of  their  duties  as 
citizens,  and  give  them  a  better  understanding  of  those 
duties. 

A  recitation  in  history  properly  conducted  will  en- 
courage the  pupils  to  gather  information  from  all  avail- 
able sources.  The  gazetteer,  cyclopjiedia,  biographies, 
and  histories  of  various  kinds  will  be  sought  and  read 


HISTORY,  169 

for  the  purpose  of  gaining  and  giving  all  possible  infor- 
mation upon  the  topics  to  be  recited.  Such  study  and 
recitation  will  encourage  a  spirit  of  investigation  and 
tend  to  the  formation  of  a  habit  of  using  reference 
books,  which  will  be  of  incalculable  service  to  pupils 
after  they  leave  school. 

Selections  of  poetry  and  prose  bearing  upon  the  sub- 
jects studied  ma)''  be  memorized  and  recited  with  great 
profit  to  the  pupil.  Patrick  Henry's  "•  Appeal "  and 
Mrs.  Hemans's  "Pilgrim  Fathers"  have  done  more  for 
some  pupils  than  all  else  they  have  studied.  Feelings 
of  patriotism  may  be  excited  and  the  imagination  may 
be  stirred  in  this  as  in  no  other  way. 

Topical  Reviews.  —  In  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth 
year,  and  occasionally  at  other  times,  topical  reviews 
should  be  given  consisting  of  the  details  of  a  single  sub- 
ject. The  following  outlines  may  be  suggestive  of  the 
manner  of  taking  up  reviews  in  which  the  history 
of  a  single  subject  is  traced  with  comparatively  few 
details  :  — 

INniANS. 

1.  What  territory  occupied,  past  and  present. 

2.  Mode  of  living. 

3.  Claitiis  to  the  soil. 

4.  Government  support. 

5.  Present  condition  and  prospects. 

SLAVERY. 

1.  Origin. 

2.  vSlave  trade. 

3.  Early  opposition. 

4.  Recognition  in  Constitution. 

5.  Louisiana  purchase. 

6.  Missouri  Compromise. 


170  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

7.  Abolitionism. 

Garrison,  Phillips. 
John  Brown,  Lovejoy. 
Emancipation. 
By  individuals. 
By  state. 
By  country. 

EXTENSION    OF    TERRITORY    AND    SETTLEMENT. 

1.  Settlement  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

2.  Settlement  of  the  Northwest. 

3.  Louisiana  purchase. 

4.  Florida  purchase. 

5.  Settlements  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

6.  Annexation  of  Texas. 

7.  Mexican  War. 

8.  Settlement  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

9.  Purchase  of  Alaska. 

10.  Settlement  of  the  Southwest. 

Biographical  reviews,  especially  of  the  lives  of  those 
persons  who  have  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  affairs 
of  the  country,  will  also  be  found  interesting  and  use- 
ful. Many  of  the  leading  features  of  history  will  in 
this  way  be  brought  out  clearly  and  be  connected  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  them  remembered.  The  follow- 
ing names  are  suggested  for  review:  — 

John  Smith,  Columbus,  Cabot,  Cortez,  La  Salle,  Wolfe,  Wash- 
ington, Braddock,  Lafayette,  Franklin,  Adams,  Putnam,  Jefferson, 
Madison,  Clay,  Webster,  Scott,  Lincoln,  Grant,  Garfield. 

In  these  later  lessons  upon  a  country,  it  will  be  well 
to  encourage  the  pupils  to  ask  questions  in  recitation, 
the  answers  to  which  they  have  previously  looked  up. 
Much  interest  will  in  this  way  be  developed  and  the 


HISTORY.  171 

pupils  will  be  encouraged  to  consult  reference  books  at 
home,  in  the  public  library,  and  in  the  schoolroom. 

Historical  Reading.  —  One  of  the  chief  objects  of 
the  study  of  history  in  school  is  to  awaken  an  interest  in 
the  subject  to  such  an  extent  as  to  induce  persons  to 
read  good  books  of  history  and  biography  after  they 
have  left  school.  Doubtless  this  object  is  gained,  to  a 
great  extent,  by  following  good  methods  of  study  and 
by  frequently  reading  good  books  in  school.  Yet  more 
than  this  may  be  done,  first  by  directing  the  outside 
reading  of  pupils,  and  secondly  by  encouraging  such 
reading  by  means  of  special  exercises.  There  should 
be  given  to  the  pupils  a  list  of  books,  both  of  biography 
and  history,  suitable  for  them  to  read.  If  any  of  the 
books  named  are  not  in  the  public  or  school  library, 
the  teacher  should  use  his  influence  to  have  them  put 
there.  Generally  trustees  of  libraries  are  very  glad  of 
such  suggestions,  and  are  willing  to  co-operate  with 
teachers  in  leading  the  young  to  read  good  books. 

A  course  of  reading  by  subjects  may  be  laid  out  for 
a  term,  and  once  a  week,  perhaps  on  Friday  afternoon, 
thirty  or  forty  minutes  may  be  well  spent  in  question- 
ing pupils  upon  what  they  have  read.  For  example, 
the  subject  for  one  week  might  be  The  Mound-Builders. 
The  pupils  would  be  asked  what  they  have  read  upon 
the  subject  during  the  past  week  or  at  any  previous 
time.  From  one  and  another  of  the  pupils  information 
of  where  the  Mound-Builders  lived,  what  they  built, 
use  of  mounds,  what  is  found  in  them,  and  where  they 
are  now  seen,  together  with  such  a  description  of  the 
utensils  discovered  as  will  lead  the  pupils  to  infer  the 
condition  and  occupations  of  this  curious  people.    Such 


172  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

exercises  help  the  pupils  to  gain  valuable  information, 
and  will  also  stimulate  them  to  read  upon  the  subject 
to  be  discussed. 

Another  means  of  stimulating  pupils  to  read  is  to 
give  out  historical  or  biographical  subjects  for  composi- 
tion. Knowing  that  they  are  to  write  upon  a  given 
subject,  they  will  read  with  the  view  of  gaining  all  the 
information  they  can.  For  some  reasons  it  may  be  well 
to  have  such  compositions  written  during  a  specified 
time  in  school. 

Historical  Recreations.  —  It  will  be  useful  to  take 
half  an  hour  occasionally  for  a  game  or  for  miscella- 
neous questioning.  One  way  of  spending  the  time 
would  be  to  have  each  pupil  bring  in  five  questions 
somewhat  out  of  the  usual  course ;  such  as,  "Whose 
dying  words  were,  'Don't  give  up  the  ship"?"  "Was 
Washington  ever  wounded  in  battle  ? "  "  Who  was 
'  Rough  and  Ready '  ?  " 

A  useful  game  is  to  have  each  pupil  assume  some 
character  of  history,  and  by  a  story  or  a  little  account 
of  himself  lead  others  to  guess  who  he  is.  Another 
game  consists  in  having  one  of  the  pupils  leave  the 
room,  while  the  others  select  for  him  some  historical 
character.  On  his  return  he  is  to  guess  from  the  re- 
marks of  his  mates  what  character  he  represents.  By 
careful  management  these  games  will  prove  profitable 
and  interesting  to  all. 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE.  173 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

Hygiene,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  means  of  preserving 
health,  should  be  especially  emphasized  in  the  primary 
and  grammar  grades,  and  only  such  parts  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  should  be  taught  as  will  help  pupils  to 
a  good  understanding  of  the  laws  of  health.  In  the 
primary  school,  observation  of  external  parts  alone 
should  be  made ;  and  only  as  pupils  are  prepared  to 
observe  should  the  structure  and  function  of  the  vari- 
ous internal  organs  be  taught. 

Means.  —  By  means  of  parts  of  animals,  procured  at 
the  butcher's,  the  structure  of  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
body  can  be  taught.  If  a  manikin  is  not  provided, 
good  anatomical  charts  should  be  near  at  hand  for  con- 
stant reference.  As  the  various  parts  of  the  body  are 
studied,  their  location  should  be  pointed  out  by  pupils, 
either  upon  their  own  bodies  or  upon  the  bodies  of 
others. 

While  books  may  be  in  the  hands  of  pupils  of  the 
higher  grades,  the  teacher  should  under  no  circum- 
stances allow  the  pupils  to  memorize  and  repeat  what 
is  not  clearly  understood. 

Outline  and  Methods.  —  Instead  of  laying  down  a 
definite  amount  for  each  term  and  year,  the  following 
general  outline  is  given  for  the  teachers  of  all  grades 
above  the  primary.^  Only  the  most  general  features  of 
the  subjects  should  be  taken  up  in  the  lower  grades, 
the  study  and  observation  being  more  minute  as  the 
pupils  grow  in  maturity  and  in  ability  to  comprehend 

1  The  course  tor  primary  grades  is  given  upon  page  195. 


174  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

the  functions  of  the  various  parts.     For  the  daily  study 
it  will  be  necessary  to  subdivide  the  topics. 

A  few  suggestions  in  regard  to  methods  of  teaching 
are  added  to  each  subject.  Other  suggestions  will  be 
found  in  good  text-books,  several  of  which  should  be 
upon  the  teacher's  table  for  reference. 

I.  Waste  Matters  of  the  Body. 

Show  by  observation  that  water  and  carbon  constantly  escape 
from  the  body  through  the  breath,  and  that  salt  escapes  by  means 
of  perspiration.  To  show  the  existence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the 
breath,  breathe  into  lime-water,  and  observe  the  same  effect  as  when 
lime-water  is  mixed  with  carbonic  acid.  This  is  shown  by  thrust- 
ing red-hot  coal  into  a  dry  test-tube  and  adding  lime-water  to  the 
gas  generated. 

II.  Food  and  Drink. 

Show  by  observation  and  experiment  the  principal  kinds  of 
food,  as  the  albuminous  foods,  sugars  and  starches,  fats,  and  min- 
eral foods.  Hints  of  methods  will  be  found  in  any  good  text-book 
of  physiology.  In  directing  the  observation  of  pupils,  keep  con- 
stantly in  mind  the  purpose  of  showing  what  kind  of  food  is  best 
to  build  up  the  body,  to  repair  waste,  and  to  supply  heat. 

III.  Digestion  and  Assimilation. 

1.  Organs  and  pai'ts  :  — 

(1)  Name;  (2)  location;  (3)  construction. 

2.  Process  of  digestion. 

3.  Hygiene. 

Conditions   of  health   in   respect  to  eating,   drinking,   and 
exercising.     Effects  of  use  of  tobacco. 

Examine  structure  of  teeth  procured  from  a  dentist ;  also  teeth 
of  lower  animals.  For  location  and  external  shape,  let  the  pupils 
look  into  one  another's  mouths,  and,  with  the  aid  of  a  mirror,  in 
their  own  mouths.     Dissect  a  cat,  rabbit,  or  frog,  to  see  the  loca- 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE.  175 

tion  and  structure  of  organs.  Make  drawings,  and  compare  with 
chaft.  Get  specimens  from  the  butcher's,  and  examine  structure. 
Examine  bits  of  pig's  stomach  to  see  coats  and  openings  of  gastric 
tubes. 

Consult  text-books  for  experiments  to  show  the  action  of  saliva, 
gastric  juice,  bile,  and  pancreatic  juice  upon  various  kinds  of  food. 
Lead  pupils  to  know  what  food  is  most  nutritious,  and  length  of 
time  taken  for  digestion.  Let  the  pupils  infer  reasons  for  laws  of 
health  in  relation  to  care  of  the  teeth,  manner  of  chewing  the  food, 
times  of  eating  and  exercising,  kind  of  food  to  be  eaten,  times  of 
drinking,  etc. 

IV.  Circulation. 

1 .  Organs  and  parts  :  — 

(1)  Name ;  (2)  location ;  (3)  construction ;  (4)  function. 

2.  Composition  and  uses  of  blood. 

3.  Hj-giene :  — 

(1)  Nature  and  causes  of  diseases  of  organs. 

(2)  Health  of  organs  in  relation  to  food,  exercise,  clothing, 

and  air. 

(3)  The  use  of  tobacco  and  alcohol. 

Dissect  a  sheep's  heart  to  show  its  structure  and  the  position  of 
parts.  Refer  to  text-book  and  chart  for  guide  in  dissecting  and 
in  finding  the  parts.  ^lake  drawings  of  parts  discovered,  and  com- 
pare with  chart.  Observe  with  microscope  the  blood  circulating 
in  frog's  foot.  Listen  with  the  stethoscope  to  the  heart-beats.  No- 
tice pulse  in  the  wrist  and  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  For  experi- 
ments to  show  the  composition  of  the  blood,  consult  good  text- 
books. 

V.  Respiration. 

1.  Organs  and  parts :  — 

(1)  Name;  (2)  location;  (3)  construction;  (4)  function. 

2.  Breathing :  — 

Action  of  inspiration  —  expiration, 

3.  \'oice :  — 

(1;  Organs;  (2)  sound  and  speech. 


176  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

4.   Hygiene:  — 

(1)  Action  of  air  in  lungs. 

(2)  Cause  and  prevention  of  disease ;  ventilation ;  disinfec- 

tants ;  loose  clothing ;  exercise. 

Listen  to  respiration  with  stethoscope  in  inspiration  and  expira- 
tion. Xote  the  difference.  Examine  carefully  a  sheep's  lungs  and 
windpipe  attached.  Distend  lungs  with  air,  and  examine.  Exam- 
ine sheep's  windpipe ;  cut  lengthwise  in  front  and  behind  to  show 
vocal  cords;  notice  the  cartilages  that  form  the  larynx. 

VI.   Muscles  and  Tendons. 

1.  Structm-e  and  arrangement. 

2.  Kinds. 

3.  Action  and  use. 

4.  Hygiene. 

Health  and  strength  of  muscles  in  relation  to  exercise,  rest, 
food,  pure  air. 
Examine  boiled  lean  beef  to  observe  fibres,  bundles,  and  con- 
nective tissue.  Get  sheep's  leg  with  hoof  on  to  show  the  struc- 
ture and  action  of  tendons;  also,  to  show  the  contraction  and 
relaxation  of  muscles.  Examine  the  tendons  of  a  fowl's  leg  and 
foot.  Let  the  pupils  locate  muscles,  and  observe  the  action  of 
tendons  and  muscles  upon  their  own  bodies.  Let  the  pupils  infer 
from  the  construction  and  use  of  muscles  the  need  of  exercise; 
also,  the  proper  amount  and  kind  of  exercise. 


VII.   Bones. 


1.  The  skeleton. 

2.  Composition  and  structure. 

3.  Periosteum. 

4.  Cartilage. 

5.  Joints  and  ligaments. 
G.  General  uses. 

7.  Hygiene. 

Food ;  exercise. 


Dissolve  mineral  matter  of  bones  by  soaking   them   in   weak 
muriatic   acid.      De.stroy   animal    matter   by   burning.      Examine 


PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE.  177 

bone  with  microscope.  Examine  partially  decayed  bone.  Cite 
instances  to  illustrate  circulation  of  blood  in  bones  and  the  growth 
of  them.  Have  pupils  infer  the  general  uses.  Examine  with 
knife  and  forceps  joints,  coverings,  and  cartilage  procured  at  the 
butcher's. 

In  examining  the  skeleton,  the  number,  form,  and  position  of 
the  bones  should  be  noted,  and  so  far  as  it  seems  best  the  name  of 
each  bone  may  be  given.  The  common  name  should  be  given  in 
preference  to  the  scientific  name.  Encourage  pupils  to  feel  of 
bones  to  ascertain  their  shape  in  every  part,  and  have  them  infer 
the  motions  and  other  uses  of  parts  from  a  knowledge  of  their 
shape  and  structui-e. 

If  the  school  does  not  own  a  skeleton,  it  may  be  borrowed  from 
a  physician.  If  none  can  be  procured,  examine  bones  of  lower 
animals.     Use  charts  constantly. 

VIII.  Nervous  System. 

1.  Organs  and  parts :  — 

(1)  Name;  (2)  location;  (3)  construction;  (4)  function. 

2.  Hygiene :  — 

(1)  Name  and  cause  of  disease. 

(2)  Health  of  organs,  how  preserved.     Occupation,  recrea- 

tion, sleep. 

Dissect  a  calf's  brain,  and  compare  parts  observed  with  diagram. 
Let  pupils  infer  from  the  structure  and  function  .of  the  brain  and 
nerves  the  need  of  rest  and  sleep,  the  time  in  which  rest  should  be 
taken,  the  duration  of  mental  exercise,  and  the  kind  of  food  and 
clothing  needed.  The  effect  of  the  use  of  tobacco  and  alcohol 
upon  the  nerves  should  be  inferred  from  observation  of  its  use. 
from  what  is  known  of  the  nervous  system,  and  from  familia? 
experiments. 

IX.  Senses. 

Organs  and  parts :  — 
Structure. 
Function. 
Hygiene, 


1. 

Touch 

2. 

Sight 

3. 

Hearing 

4. 

Taste 

5. 

Smell 

178  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

By  experiment  show  what  parts  of  the  body  are  most  sensitive, 
Let  pupils  infer  the  cause  and  reason. 

Show  by  experiments  the  assistance  which  the  senses  give  one 
another  in  giving  impressions. 

Dissect  the  eye  of  an  ox  or  a  codfish  to  observe  the  structure. 
Let  the  pupils  infer  from  the  structure  causes  of  disease  and  the 
kind  of  care  which  should  be  taken  of  the  eyes. 

X.    Skin. 

1.  Structure  and  use  of  parts  :  — 

(1)  Cuticle,  hair,  and  nails ;  (2)  true  skin ;  (3)  perspiration- 
tubes;  (4)  oil-tubes. 

2.  Complexion. 

3.  Hygiene :  — 

(1)  Diseases  and  their  causes. 

(2)  Healthy  condition  of  skin  in  relation  to  general  health. 

(3)  Cleanliness ;   clothing. 

Examine  skin  with  microscope.  Scrape  off  cuticle  with  a  sharp 
knife.  Observe  blisters  and  callous  places.  Examine  perspiration- 
tubes  on  palm  of  hand  with  microscope ;  also,  hair  and  finger- 
nails. Let  pupils  infer  from  the  use  of  parts  the  kind  of  care 
needed. 

Dissection.  —  Reference  has  been  made  in  the  above 
outline  to  the  dissection  of  a  cat  or  rabbit.  To  do  this 
well  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  novice  to  get  some 
assistance  either  from  books  or  from  some  one  who  has 
had  practice  in  dissecting.  The  following  suggestions 
copied  from  The  American  Teacher  may  be  of  assistance 
to  some  teachers. 

[A  blow  on  the  temple  will  kill  a  rabbit ;  for  a  cat,  with  its 
proverbial  "nine  lives,"  chloroform  may  be  used.  This  can  be 
given  on  a  sponge,  placing  the  animal  in  a  close  box,  or  by  putting 
it  down  the  throat  by  means  of  a  pipette.  Experience  proves  that 
the  village  doctor  is  often  glad  to  encourage  the  study  of  physi- 
ology by  thus  preparing  the  animal  for  dissection.     If  the  subse- 


PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE.  179 

quent  work  is  tenderly  and  reverently  done,  —  as  it  should  alivays 
be, —  the  pupils  will  have  a  fuller  appreciation  of  the  "  fearful  and 
wonderful "  way  in  which  the  Creator  has  fashioned  the  human 
body  than  is  possible  from  the  mere  study  of  the  book.  No 
teacher  should  undertake  this  work  who  cannot  thereby  increase 
the  reverence  of  his  pupils  for  the  "  temple  of  the  soul,"  and  thus 
disarm  all  cJriticism  upon  dissection  as  "  developing  cruelty." 

Materials.  —  A  rabbit  or  cat ;  a  board  large  enough  to  hold  the 
animal  when  stretched  out ;  hammer  and  tacks ;  a  sharp  knife  and 
scissors ;  a  needle,  strong  thread,  and  a  pair  of  light  foixeps.] 

1.  Place  the  animal  upon  its  back,  on  a  board,  holding  it  in 
position  by  driving  a  tack  through  each  paw. 

2.  Pai'ting  the  fur,  carefully  slit  the  skin  with  the  scissors  from 
the  neck  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  chest ;  make  short  cross-cuts 
at  the  end  of  this  slit,  and  draw  back  the  skin  with  the  fingers, 
being  very  careful  not  to  disturb  any  of  the  tissues  or  organs 
beneath. 

3.  See  and  feel  the  trachea  and  larynx  under  a  thin  layer  of 
tissue;  note,  on  each  side  and  "just  behind  the  angle  of  the  lower 
jaw,"  the  external  jugular  veins. 

4.  Between  the  trachea  and  each  of  these  veins,  just  under  the 
tissue  layer,  lies  a  muscle  (sterno-mastoid).  Study  its  position, 
and  the  meeting  of  the  two;  the  subject  of  muscles  is  often  a 
puzzle  to  the  pupil,  his  ideas  thereon  being  very  misty. 

5.  Clear  away  on  the  left  the  thin  layer  of  tissue,  being  very 
careful  not  to  prick  a  vein,  so  as  to  get  blood  upon  the  specimen. 
If  any  small  branch  nmst  be  cut,  tie  it  in  two  places  first,  and  cut 
between.  Another  muscle  (the  sterno-hyoid)  will  now  be  seen, 
between  the  sterno-mastoid  and  the  trachea.  Pull  the  latter  muscle 
outward,  trace  slowly  and  carefully  with  the  fingers  through  the 
connective  tissue  between  the  two  muscles,  and  the  carotid  artery 
and  some  large  nerves  will  be  found.  Be  sure  that  the  pupils  see 
the  latter,  and  understand  clearly  that  nerves  are  tangible  cords, 
not  mere  "  impressions." 

6.  Cut  the  sterno-mastoid  muscle  where  it  joins  the  breast-bone, 
turn  it  one  side,  gently  lift  the  carotid  artery  in  your  forceps  and 
trace  it  forward,  separating  it  with  care  from  adjoining  parts,  till 
you  reach  its  division  at  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.     Following 


180  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

up  the  external  carotid  artery,  find  the  submaxillary  gland,  "a 
soft,  roundish  mass  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut."  Note  its 
slender  duct  passing  into  the  mouth.  A  little  farther  along,  the 
artery  is  crossed  by  a  tendon  and  nerve. 

7.  The  large  pneumogastric  nerve  is  nearly  parallel  to  the 
carotid  artery  ;  upon  it,  near  the  skull,  is  a  ganglion. 

S.  Repeat  this  dissection  on  the  right  side,  then  cut  across  the 
inner  ends  of  the  muscles  from  the  chest  to  the  shoulders,  and, 
turning  them  outward,  note  the  arteries,  veins,  and  nerves  passing 
to  the  trunk  and  fore  limbs. 

9.  Raise  the  front  end  of  the  sternum  in  your  forceps,  cut 
through  the  muscles  and  rib  cartilages  on  each  side,  turn  back  the 
sternum,  cut  it  across  near  the  lower  line  of  the  chest  cavity,  and 
remove  it.  Notice  the  diaphragm  (size  and  shape),  the  pericardium 
inclosing  the  heart,  and  the  collapsed  lungs.  Carefully  dissect 
away  adjoining  parts,  turning  heart  and  lungs  as  needed,  so  as  to 
trace  the  main  blood-vessels. 

10.  Continue  the  cut  of  the  skm  into  the  wall  of  the  abdomen, 
make  cross-cuts,  and  reflect  the  skin  and  muscles. 

Note  shape  and  position  of  the  oesophagus,  stomach,  intestines, 
and  liver. 

In  many  respects,  the  frog  is  the  best  animal  from 
which  to  learn  the  structure  and  arrangements  of  the 
internal  organs  of  the  human  body.  To  kill  the  frog, 
put  it  into  a  little  alcohol,  or  into  a  mixture  of  ether 
and  water,  in  a  closed  bottle  or  fruit-jar.  Lay  aside  the 
skin  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  lead  the  pupils  to  see  and 
describe  the  arrangement  of  organs ;  also,  so  far  as  they 
are  able,  to  examine  the  structure  of  each  part. 

This  work  will  be  found  very  profitable,  and  is 
within  the  power  of  every  teacher  to  do. 

Emergencies.  —  Special  lessons  should  be  given  in 
the  higher  grades  to  show  what  may  be  done  in  times 
of  emergency  before  the  physician  arrives.  A  knowl- 
edge of  what  to  do  when  the  body  is  cut  or  injured  in 


PHYSIOLO(JY    AND    HYGIENE.  181 

any  part,  when  poison  is  taken,  and  when  a  partially 
drowned  person  is  taken  from  the  water,  might  be  the 
means  of  preserving  a  valuable  life,  and  at  no  time  can 
such  knowledge  be  more  advantageously  given  than 
while  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  organs  are 
being  taught.  Detailed  directions,  found  in  any  good 
text-book  upon  physiology,  should  be  frequently  re- 
viewed. 

Use  of  Tobacco.  —  In  connection  with  the  lessons 
in  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  the  effects  of  the  use  of 
tobacco  upon  the  system  should  be  clearly  and  forcibly 
explained.  The  character  of  the  constituents  of  tobacco 
—  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  and  nicotine  —  should  be 
taught,  and  their  effects  upon  the  stomach,  lungs,  blood, 
brain,  and  nerves,  be  made  known.  The  teacher  should 
dwell  especially  upon  the  harm  which  smoking  and 
chewing  tobacco  have  upon  young  people,  not  only  in 
its  physical  effects  on  account  of  the  delicacy  of  tissues, 
but  also  in  its  mental  and  moral  effects. 

Use  of  Alcohol.  —  The  effects  of  alcohol  as  a  poison 
may  sometimes  be  forcibly  shown  objectively,  even  to 
little  children.  In  primary  grades,  however,  most  of 
the  instruction  in  the  effects  of  the  use  of  alcohol  must 
consist  of  citing  examples  of  the  direct  injury  which 
has  been  done,  and  of  telling  and  reading  proper 
stories. 

In  the  higher  grades,  in  addition  to  the  means  em- 
ployed in  the  lower  grades,  more  direct  teaching  of  the 
subject  may  and  should  be  done.  The  following  out- 
line of  lessons  prepared  by  Mr.  Arthur  C.  Boyden,  of 
the  Bridgewater  (Mass.)  State  Normal  School,  shows 
what  may  be  dune  in  the  grammar  school :  — 


182  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

These  lessons  are  intended  to  suggest  a  method  of  teaching  the  effects 
of  alcohol  on  the  human  body.  Each  part  of  the  subject  is  introduced  by 
simple  experiments  from  which  the  teacher  may  derive  the  points  to  be 
impressed.  For  the  grammar  grade  selection  of  the  more  important  parts 
may  have  to  be  made,  but  for  the  higher  grade  all  the  points  can  be  taught, 
understood,  and  explained.  In  the  primary  grade  preparation  for  this 
work  should  be  made  by  simple  lessons  on  the  parts  and  systems  of  the 
hnman  body,  and  by  stating  in  simple  terms  the  more  apparent  facts  in 
regard  to  the  effects  of  alcohol. 

I.     Origin  of  Alcohol. 

1.  In  Fermented  Liquors. 

Experiments.  —  Exp.  1.  Add  molasses  to  water  in  a  bottle  till 
it  is  of  a  deep  brown  color,  then  add  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  yeast,  allow 
it  to  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  a  day  or  two.  Obs.  The  mixture 
has  the  odor  of  alcohol,  later  a  sour,  acid  odor ;  the  mixture  has 
a  sharp  taste.  Inf.  The  little  yeast  plant  has  changed  the  sugar 
of  the  molasses  to  alcohol;  this  will  change  to  an  acid  if  left  alone. 
Call  the  yeast  plant  a  "ferment,"  and  the  process  of  changing 
"  fermentation." 

Exp.  2.  Allow  apple  juice  to  stand  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few 
days.  Obs.  The  liquid  has  the  odor  of  alcohol,  also  the  biting 
taste.  Later  it  has  a  sour,  acid  taste  like  vinegar.  Inf.  Very 
small  ferments  from  the  air  have  changed  the  sugar  of  the  apple 
juice  to  alcohol.  Call  the  liquid  "cider."  The  alcohol  will  change 
to  vinegar  if  left  exposed  to  the  air. 

Cider  is  formed  by  the  fermentation  of  apple  juice  in  the  air. 

Wines  are  formed  by  the  fermentation  of  grape  juice,  etc.,  in 
the  air. 

Ales  and  Beers  are  formed  by  the  fermentation  of  the  sugar  of 
grains.     (Malt  liquors.) 

Alcohol  is  an  essential  constituent  of  all  these  fermented  liquors. 
Nature  will  change  it  to  an  acid  if  left  to  itself. 

2.  In  Distilled  Liquors. 

Exp.  3.  Heat  cider  or  wine  in  a  test-tube  over  an  alcohol  lamp, 
pass  the  steam  through  a  glass  tube  into  a  bottle  which  is  wrapped 
in  a  wet  cloth  to  condense  this  steam.      Obs.    The  odor  and  taste 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE.  183 

are  more  marked  than  in  the  fermented  liquors ;  often  there  is  a 
bitter  taste.  Inf.  The  condensed  liquor  is  stronger  than  the  fer- 
mented liquor,  and  is  changed  into  new  substances  oftentimes. 
Call  this  process  of  evaporating  and  condensing  "  distillation,"  and 
the  resulting  liquid  a  "distilled  liquor." 

Brandy  is  distilled  from  wines. 

Gin  is  distilled  from  beer,  and  flavored  with  juniper  berries. 

Whiskey  is  distilled  from  the  wort  of  fermented  grain. 
Rum  is  distiUedfrom  fermented  molasses. 


n.    Properties  and  Uses  of  Alcohol. 

Exp.  4.  Examine  alcohol  for  its  color,  odor,  and  taste.  Place 
a  little  on  the  hand.  Obs.  Alcohol  is  a  transparent  liquid,  has  a 
strong  odor  and  a  biting  taste.  Inf.  The  rapid  evaporation  of  the 
alcohol  makes  the  hand  feel  cool ;  it  is  a  volatile  liquid. 

Exp.  5.  Place  a  little  in  a  spoon,  apply  a  lighted  match.  Obs. 
It  burns  with  a  blue,  hot  flame.  Inf.  Alcohol  is  inflammable 
because  it  unites  easily  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

Exp.  6.  Shake  a  little  powdered  resin  in  alcohol.  Obs.  The 
alcohol  changes  to  the  color  of  the  resin ;  finally  the  resin  disap- 
pears.    Inf.  Some  resinous  substances  are  soluble  in  alcohol. 

Exp.  7.  Mix  a  little  oil  of  turpentine  with  alcohol ;  shake.  Obs. 
The  turpentine  mixes  with  the  alcohol.  Inf.  Alcohol  will  mix 
with  some  oils. 

Exp.  8.  Add  alcohol  to  the  white  of  an  egg  (albumen).  Obs. 
The  alcohol  changes  the  moist  mucilaginous  albumen  to  a  white, 
string}'  solid.  Call  this  "coagulation."  Inf.  Alcohol  coagulates 
albuminous  substances  by  extracting  the  water  from  them. 

Properties.  —  Alcohol  is  a  transparent  liquid,  —  odorous,  —  has 
biting  taste,  —  is  volatile.  It  dissolves  many  resinous  substances 
—  and  mixes  with  most  oils.  It  is  inflammable  —  great  affinity  for 
oxygen.     It  coagulates  albumen — attraction  for  water. 

Uses  (resulting  from  these  properties).  —  External  application  to 
allay  inflammation.  Alcohol  lamps  for  heating  purposes.  A  sol- 
vent for  gums  in  preparing  varnishes.  In  preparation  of  perfumery, 
medicine,  etc.     Preservation  of  museum  specimens. 


184  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

III.     Effects  of  Alcohol  on  the  Human  Body. 
1.  Alcohol  impairs  Digestion. 

Exp.  9.  Place  with  the  finger  a  little  alcohol  on  the  inside 
membrane  of  the  mouth  (a  mucous  membrane)  ;  repeat  this  several 
times.  Obs.  The  membrane  stings,  the  saliva  flows  freely,  finally 
there  is  a  dry,  puckery  feeling.  Inf.  Alcohol  inflames  the  mem- 
brane, excites  the  flow  of  the  liquid  which  it  secretes,  and  absorbs 
the  moisture  in  it. 

Application.  —  The  lining  membrane  of  the  mouth  also  lines  the 
stomach  and  the  other  organs  of  the  digestive  system.  A  small 
amount  of  alcohol  will  cause  a  profuse  flow  of  the  gastric  juice  and 
passes  very  rapidly  into  the  blood.  A  larger  amount  inflames  and 
irritates  the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach.  A  continued  use 
weakens  the  quality  of  the  gastric  juice  by  the  unusual  and  irregu- 
lar flow,  also  impoverishes  the  blood  from  which  it  comes.  It  irri- 
tates the  constantly  inflamed  membrane  of  the  stomach,  leading  to 
an  ulcerous  condition  and  chronic  inflammation.  (See  Dr.  Sewall's 
diagrams,  p.  44  of  the  Standard  League  Documents,  No.  3,  36 
Bromfield  Street,  Boston.) 

Exp.  10.  Add  alcohol  to  raw  meat;  also  rub  some  meat  in 
water  till  it  is  well  colored  with  blood.  Add  alcohol  to  this  blood. 
Obs.  The  liquid  is  full  of  white  particles,  and  the  meat  seems 
hard.  Inf.  The  alcohol  has  coagulated  the  albumen  of  the  meat 
and  blood. 

Exp.  11.  Add  alcohol  to  some  of  the  pepsin  of  the  gastric 
juice.  Obs.  The  pepsin  contains  white,  stringy  particles.  Inf. 
Alcohol  coagulates  pepsin. 

Note.  —  To  prepare  the  pepsin,  get  from  the  butcher  the  inside  mem- 
brane of  a  pig's  stomach  ;  cut  into  fine  pieces,  and  soak  it  in  glycerine  for  a 
few  hours.  The  glycerine  dissolves  the  pepsin;  strain  through  a  fine  cloth. 
Prepared  pepsin  can  be  bought  of  the  druggist. 

Application.  —  Pepsin  is  the  active  solvent  of  the  gastric  juice. 
Alcohol  tends  to  harden  the  food  and  coagulate  the  pepsin,  thus 
retarding  digestion.  Continued  use  tends  to  chronic  indigestion 
and  to  the  intensifying  of  any  diseases  of  the  digestive  system. 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE.  186 

2.   Alcohol  absorbs  the  Water  of  the  Body. 

Exps.     Refer  to  Exps.  8  and  9. 

Alcohol  not  only  absorbs  water  from  the  albumen  which  it 
coagulates,  but  the  whole  system  floods  it  with  water  to  dilute  it 
and  render  it  less  harmful.  Hence  alcohol  absorbs  the  water  of 
the  saliva,  of  the  gastric  juice,  of  the  blood,  of  the  tissues,  and  of 
all  the  secretions.  This  soon  results  in  a  craving  for  fluid  to 
supply  the  body,  really  a  "thirst "  for  water  requiring  time  for  its 
absorption  throughout  the  system,  but  temporarily  satisfied  by 
more  exciting. 

o.   Alcohol  destroys  the  Blood-Corpuscles. 

Exp.  12.  Prick  with  a  pin  under  the  finger-nail  and  draw  a 
drop  of  blood.  Place  this  on  a  bit  of  glass,  and  examine  with  a 
magnifying  glass.  Observe  the  way  in  which  the  little  blood-cor- 
puscles are  arranged.  Touch  them  with  the  smallest  amount  of 
alcohol.  Obs.  The  corpuscles  are  of  an  irregular  shape,  and  have 
lost  part  of  their  color.  Add  more  alcohol.  Obs.  The  corpuscles 
are  in  an  irregular  mass  of  a  whitish  color.  Inf.  Alcohol  coagulates 
the  albumen  of  the  corpuscles,  and  dissolves  the  coloring  matter. 
Refer  also  to  Exp.  o. 

Application.  —  Alcohol  at  once  enters  the  blood,  seizes  the  oxy- 
gen that  the  red  corpuscles  are  carrying  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
body,  dissolves  the  coloring  matter,  and  coagulates  the  albumen  of 
these  corpuscles.  Hence  the  blood  partially  fails  in  its  work  of 
carrying  new  matter  to  the  tissues  and  in  eliminating  the  waste 
matter.  The  result  is  a  clogging  of  the  system  with  effete  matter, 
poisoning  of  the  blood,  diseases  of  the  skin,  liver,  and  kidneys. 
The  retarding  of  the  combustion  within  the  body  lowers  its  tem- 
perature in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  taken. 

4.     Alcohol  ruins  the  Blood-Vessels. 

Observe  the  crust  of  earthy  matter  on  the  inside  of  bottles  of 
grape  wine.  Inf.  The  earthy  matter  which  was  soluble  in  the 
grape  juice  is  thrown  down  by  the  alcohol  in  the  wine. 

Application.  —  The  mineral  matter  which  is  being  carried  by  the 
blood  to  the  bones  is  precipitated  by  the  alcohol  and  forms  a  crust 


186  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

in  the  blood-vessels  and  in  all  the  tissues,  making  them  weak  and 
brittle.  As  a  result  blood-vessels  burst  under  any  unusual  strain, 
and  apoplexy  results. 

5.     Alcohol  paralyzes  Nerve  Matter.     (A  narcotic.) 

Exp.  13.  Etherize  or  chloroform  a  frog  by  soaking  a  wad  of 
cotton  and  putting  it  in  his  mouth,  or  place  a  spoonful  of  ether  in  a 
jar  of  water  and  immerse  the  frog.  When  insensible,  carefully 
cut  open  the  skin  and  flesh  of  the  leg  till  the  nerve  is  exposed. 
Touch  a  drop  of  alcohol  to  the  exposed  nerve.  Obs.  The  nerve 
becomes  stiff  and  white,  the  trembling  of  the  limb  ceases.  Inf. 
Alcohol  has  paralyzed  the  live  nerve  matter. 

Application.  —  A  small  dose  of  alcohol  causes  incipient  paralysis 
of  the  nei'ves  of  the  tissues  and  brain  ;  this  causes  an  extra  activity 
for  the  purpose  of  diluting  and  expelling  the  poison  from  the  sys- 
tem, manifested  by  the  "  animated  appearance,  the  throbbing  of 
the  arteries,  the  flush  of  the  face,  and  the  sparkle  of  the  eye." 
This  paralysis  also  numbs  any  feelings  of  pain,  apparent  benefits 
arising  from  previous  paralysis.  The  paralysis  of  the  nerves  con- 
trolling the  muscular  walls  of  the  capillaries  weakens  their  elasti- 
city; at  the  same  time  the  heart  increases  its  action:  hence  the 
blood  tends  to  remain  near  the  surface,  and  an  extra  radiation  of 
heat  takes  place  —  a  second  reason  for  the  lower  temperature  of  the 
body. 

Increase  the  dose,  and  the  paralysis  of  the  brain  increases  in  this 
order:  1.  Of  the  delicate  nerve  matter  of  the  superior  brain  (cere- 
bellum), blunting  the  highest  functions,  reverence,  modesty,  love, 
etc. ;  its  reflex  action  is  the  loss  of  control  of  the  connecting 
nei'ves ;  thus  moral  power  fails,  and  the  lower  nature  is  supreme. 
2.  The  part  of  the  brain  controlling  voluntary  motion  is  paralyzed  ; 
at  the  same  time  the  nerves  of  sensation  are  paralyzed,  resulting 
in  an  insensibility  to  pain  and  injury;  this  goes  on  till  a  person  is 
"  dead  drunk."  3.  The  last  part  of  the  nervous  system  affected  is 
that  which  controls  the  involuntary  actions,  breathing,  etc. ;  this 
paralysis  causes  death. 

Continued  use  leads  to  a  degeneracy  of  nerve  matter  and  tissue 
by  the  constant  paralysis  and  repair,  because  the  structure  of  the 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE.  187 

nerve  matter  is  changed ;  hence  "  disorders  occasioned  by  the  strain 
imposed  on  the  system,  diseases  traceable  to  the  general  degenera- 
tion of  the  system,  and  diseases  which  might  otherwise  be  averted 
or  resisted";  finally  the  insatiable  demand  for  alcohol,  diseases  of 
the  nerves,  delirium  and  death. 


188  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS. 

Besides  the  objective  work  required  to  be  done  in 
connection  with  the  teaching  of  all  the  common 
branches,  there  should  be  given  regularly  in  all  pri- 
mary and  grammar  grades  and  in  the  ungraded  school, 
observation  lessons  upon  minerals,  plants,  and  animals. 
It  should  be  understood  that  the  aim  of  these  lessons 
is  not  so  much  to  teach  many  facts  as  it  is  to  cultivate 
the  pupils'  powers  of  observation,  and  to  awaken  an 
interest  in,  and  a  love  for,  the  things  of  nature  that  lie 
directly  about  them.  Let  this  part  of  the  work  there- 
fore be  slowly  and  carefully  done.  Use  no  book  in  the 
recitation,  give  out  no  lessons  to  be  learned,  and  tell 
nothing  to  the  pupils  which  they  can  ascertain  for  them- 
selves by  their  own  observation.  Learning  one  fact  by 
their  own  unaided  powers  is  better  than  memorizing  a 
hundred  facts  which  have  been  given  them. 

Do  not  let  the  fact  that  you  have  not  much  knowl- 
edge of  science  discourage  you  from  making  the  effort 
to  teach  the  subjects  required  to  be  taught  in  these 
elementary  lessons.  With  three  or  four  elementary 
books  of  science  from  which  to  learn  some  facts  and 
methods  of  illustration,  any  teacher  can  after  a  little 
time  conduct  the  exercises  so  as  to  secure  good  results. 
Again,  let  it  be  urged  upon  you  not  to  use  books  in 
teaching  these  lessons,  but  have  the  pupils  study  objects 
only.  Make  a  careful  preparation  of  every  lesson,  even 
though  the  subject  be  familiar,  and  so  far  as  possible 
provide  each  pupil  with  something  to  do  or  to  see. 
Have  a  delinite  object  in  your  mind  in  presenting  a  les- 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  189 

son,  avoiding  the  aimless  and  irrelevant  conversation 
which  is  frequently  carried  on  in  a  lesson  of  this  kind. 
Avoid  a  uniform  question  and  answer  method,  and  do 
not  encourage  or  allow  the  use  of  set  and  formal  expres- 
sions. The  "  Model  Lessons  "  found  in  books  and  peri- 
odicals should  serve  as  a  hint  only  of  what  may  be 
done.  No  two  lessons  should  be  conducted  precisely  in 
the  same  way.  The  best  object  lessons  are  those  in 
which  there  is  the  freest  expression  of  what  the  pupils 
actually  see. 

Do  not  extend  the  lessons  beyond  the  point  at  which 
the  pupils'  interest  flags,  nor  rob  the  lessons  of  their 
proper  time.  It  will  be  well  to  have  a  definite  time 
allotted  to  them.  Two  ten-minute  lessons  every  day 
in  the  primary  grades,  or  during  the  first  three  years, 
and  two  lessons  a  week,  of  thirty  or  forty  minutes  each, 
or  one  lesson  a  week,  an  hour  in  length  in  the  higher 
grades  will  give  time  to  do  much  valuable  work.  In 
order  to  give  each  subject  a  proper  share  of  time,  and 
give  the  teacher  something  definite  to  work  by,  the  follow- 
ing arrangement  of  subjects  and  times  is  suggested :  — 

First  Year.  —  First  Half. 


Plants,  8  weeks.  'v  Form,  4  weeks. 

Place,  8  weeks.  >  A.M.       Color,  4  weeks. 

Human  Body,  4  weeks.  J  Qualities,  8  weeks. 

Size  and  Weight,  4  weeks. 

First  Year.  —  Second  Half. 

Plants,  8  weeks.  -\  Form,  4  weeks. 

Animals,  4  weeks.  >  A.M.       Color,  4  weeks. 

Place,  8  weeks.  /  Human  Body,  8  weeks. 

Size  and  Weight,  4  weeks. 


P.M. 


P.M. 


P.M. 


190  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Second  Year. —  First  Half. 
Plants,  8  weeks.  ^  Form,  8  weeks. 

Human  Body,  4  weeks.  \  A.M.       Color,  4  weeks.  J.  P.M. 

Place,  8  weeks.  J  Qualities,  8  weeks. 

Second  Year.  —  Second  Half. 

Plants,  8  weeks.  "\  Form,  4  weeks. 

Animals,  4  weeks.  }  A.M.       Color,  8  weeks. 

Place,  8  weeks.  J  PFi.  and  Meas.,  4  weeks. 

Human  Body,  4  weeks. 

Third  Year.  —  First  Half. 
Plants,  8  weeks.  >  Form  and  Color,  8  weeks. 

Place,  4  weeks.  >  A.M.       Human  Body,  4  weeks.        J>  P.M. 

Home  Geog.,  8  weeks.    J  Animals,  8  weeks.  j 

Third  Year.  —  Second  Half. 
Place  and  Home  Geog.,  }    .  t.^        i^orm  and  Color,  8  weeks.  > 

20  weeks.  )  Human  Body,  8  weeks.        I  P.M. 

Animals,  4  weeks.  J 

Grammar    Grades. 

Plants.  —  Froiu  April  to  November. 
Animals.  —  From  November  to  April. 
Minerals.  —  From  November  to  April, 
Astronomy.  —  From  April  to  November. 
Physics.  —  From  November  to  April. 

For  the  Observation  Lessons,  ungraded  schools  should 
be  divided  into  two  sections,  each  section  being  taught 
separately,  and  upon  subjects  required  for  graded 
schools.  The  following  arrangement  of  topics  and 
times  is  suggested  for 

Ungraded    Schools. 

To  the  younger  pupils  give  two  short  lessons  daily. 
Plants  or  Animals.  —  Once  a  week. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  191 

Size  and  Weight,  or  Qualities.  —  Once  a  week. 
Color  or  Form.  —  Once  a  week. 
Place  or  Home  Geography.  —  Once  a  week. 
Human  Body.  —  Once  a  week. 

To  the  older  pupils  give  one  long  lesson  a  week  upon  plants 
from  April  to  Xovember,  and  upon  animals  or  minerals  from 
Xovember  to  April. 

COLOR. 

The  apparatus  for  teaching  color  should  consist  of 
different-colored  worsteds,  papers,  cards,  pigments,  etc. 
A  color-chart  will  also  be  a  valuable  aid. 

Differences  and  resemblances  of  colors  should  be 
taught  by  having  the  children  select  colors  differing 
from  and  resembling  a  given  color.  The  name  of  the 
color  should  then  be  given,  and  the  pupil  be  asked  to 
select  that  color  from  among  others,  and  to  point  to  it 
in  any  part  of  the  room.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year 
the  pupils  should  be  able  to  distinguish  and  name  all 
of  the  common  colors,  as  indicated  in  the  Course  of 
Studies.  Color  and  form  may  be  taught  together  by 
using  different-colored  cards  of  various  shapes. 

In  the  second  year  shades,  tints,  and  hues  of  common 
colors  should  be  taught  as  before,  with  their  names : 
scarlet,  pink,  crimson,  straw,  indigo,  purple,  lavender, 
salmon,  buff,  etc.  Matching  colors,  shades,  and  tints 
will  be  found  to  be  a  useful  exercise.  Envelopes  con- 
taining various  colored  bits  of  paper  may  be  given  out, 
from  which  the  pupils  may  select  a  color  to  match  a 
given  color  held  up  before  them.  At  the  end  of  the 
second  year  pupils  should  be  able  to  distinguish  and 
name  all  of  the  common  colors,  and  their  tints  and 
shades. 


192  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Color  and  form  should  be  taught  together  in  the 
second  year,  considerable  time  being  given  to  the  mak- 
ing of  designs  in  which  forms  and  colors  are  combined. 

In  the  third  year  there  should  be  some  practice  in 
mixing  pigments  of  different  colors.  Orange  from  red 
and  yellow,  green  from  yellow  and  blue,  and  purple 
from  red  and  blue,  should  be  produced  before  the  pu- 
pils, either  by  mixing  the  pigments  or  by  passing  the 
sunlight  through  pieces  of  colored  glass.  Hues  should 
also  be  produced  by  mixing  pigments  of  unequal  pro- 
portions, as,  for  example,  a  reddish  hue  of  yellow  from 
the  mixture  of  a  very  little  red  with  yellow. 

Prismatic  colors  in  proper  relations  should  be  shown 
from  a  glass  prism  in  a  sunny  window,  or  from  a  soap 
bubble.  An  imitation  of  the  solar  spectrum  should  be 
made  by  the  children  by  arranging  threads  of  worsted 
upon  any  surface,  or  by  drawing  them  through  perfor- 
ated cardboard.  In  the  same  way,  scales  of  colors  from 
the  lightest  tint  to  the  darkest  shade  should  be  made. 

Colored  designs  in  connection  with  the  study  of  form 
should  be  made,  special  care  being  taken  to  have  the 
lessons  properly  graded.  These  lessons  should  be  pre- 
ceded and  accompanied  by  lessons  to  teach  harmony  of 
colors.  If  the  teacher  does  not  know  the  harmonic  or 
complementary  colors,  he  should  consult  good  books 
upon  the  subject,  and  show  the  children  what  colors 
are  harmonious  and  how  the  complementary  colors  may 
be  found. 

Much  information  may  be  given  in  connection  with 
the  color  lessons  as  to  the  different  plants  and  metals 
used  for  dyes,  emblematic  colors,  colors  of  horses, 
etc. 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  193 

Further  and  more  explicit  suggestions  to  teachers 
will  be  found  in  Miss  Crocker's  "  Lessons  on  Color  in 
Primary  Schools." 

See  Drawing,  page  252. 

PLACE. 

The  subject  "  Place,"  in  the  Course  of  Studies,  is  in- 
tended  to  include  position,  distance,  and  direction,  all 
the  lessons  to  be  constantly  illustrated  by  plan-drawing. 

Teach  use  of  the  terms  of  relative  poeition  by  hav- 
ing the  cliildren  place  an  object,  as  a  small  pasteboard 
square,  in  different  relations  to  a  book  or  upon  the 
desk.  This  should  first  be  done  in  imitation  of  the 
teacher,  and  afterw'ards  from  dictation.  Statements 
expressing  the  relative  position  of  two  objects  ma}" 
sometimes  be  made  by  the  children. 

The  following  will  indicate  some  of  the  w^ork  which 
children  should  do  during  the  first  year ;  — 

The  (square)  is 

on,  under,  over,  below,  above,  behind, 
before,  at  the  right  of,  at  the  left  of, 
in  front  of,  in  the  centre  of,  at  the 
right  side  of,  at  the  left  side  of,  at 
the  right-hand  corner  of,  at  the  left- 
hand  corner  of,  at  tlie  upper  right-hand 
corner  of,  at  the  middle  of  the  right 
side  of,  at  the  middle  of  the  front 
edge  of,  etc.,  the  desk. 

Little  drawings  of  the  top  of  the  desk,  with  an  object 
upon  it  in  different  positions,  should  be  made  by  the 
children,  the  teacher  first  showing  how  upon  the  black- 
board. 


194  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

The  relative  position  of  different  objects  in  the  school- 
room should  be  described ;  as,  "  The  teacher's  desk  is 
in  the  front  part  of  the  room,"  "  The  clock  is  above  the 
blackboard,"  "  John  sits  behind  me,"  etc.  As  soon  as 
the  points  of  compass  are  learned,  the  statements  in 
regard  to  position  may  be  extended ;  as,  "  There  are 
two  windows  on  the  north  side  of  the  room,"  "  The 
stove  is  near  the  northwest  corner  of  the  room,"  etc. 

Relative  distances  should  be  taught  at  first,  such  as 
the  relative  length  and  width  of  two  books,  of  two 
tables,  of  the  length  and  width  of  the  room,  etc.  The 
inch,  foot,  yard,  and  rod  should  be  shown  by  actual 
measurement,  and  much  practice  should  be  had  upon 
estimating  lengtlis  by  these-  standards.  Lines  upon  the 
slate  and  board,  of  an  inch,  a  foot,  and  a  yard  in  length, 
should  be  made  many  times  by  the  children,  the  work 
being  tested  and  corrected  by  the  aid  of  a  measure. 
Various  distances  within  sight  of  the  children  should 
be  first  estimated,  and  afterwards  ascertained  by  meas- 
urement. This  work  may  well  be  continued  through- 
out the  course. 

The  points  of  compass  (cardinal  and  semi-cardinal) 
should  be  taught  early  in  the  course,  and  applied  in  all 
the  Place  lessons  of  the  primary  grade.  It  is  well  to 
place  upon  the  floor  of  the  room  lines  indicating  North, 
South,  East,  and  West.  Teach,  and  have  your  pupils 
tell,  the  direction  in  which  the  rows  of  seats  extend, 
the  road,  the  fences,  etc.  ;  also,  the  direction  which  an 
object  is  from  any  other  object,  using  the  terms  North, 
Northeast,  etc. 

Other  suggestions  of  methods  to  teach  Place  are  given 
under  the  head  of  Plan-Drawing.^ 

■'  p.  14.;. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  195 

HUMAN   BODY. 

It  is  not  natural  or  well  for  young  children  to  exam- 
ine very  minutely  the  structure  and  functions  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  body ;  nor  can  they  learn  with 
profit  many  of  the  reasons  of  the  laws  of  health.  It  is 
important,  however,  that  they  know  by  observation  the 
external  parts  of  the  body,  well  enough  at  least  to  lead 
them  to  compare  the  parts  with  corresponding  parts 
of  the  lower  animals,  alid  to  know  the  proper  use  and 
care  of  the  various  parts. 

Considerable  information  will  have  to  be  given  in 
these  lessons,  although  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  ascer- 
tain and  infer  as  many  facts  as  possible  from  observa- 
tion. They  should  locate  the  parts  as  they  are  named 
by  pointing  at  or  touching  their  own  bodies  and  the 
bodies  of  others.  Sometimes  parts  of  lower  animals 
should  be  brought  before  the  class  for  observation,  as 
for  example  when  the  structure  of  muscles  or  the  shape 
of  bones  are  taught.  Charts  and  pictures  should  also 
be  near  at  hand  for  constant  reference. 

Much  use  of  simple  illustrations  and  stories  should 
be  made  in  giving  lessons  upon  hygiene  to  young  chil- 
dren, especially  upon  the  effects  of  the  use  of  tobacco 
and  alcohol.  The  various  primary  physiologies  now 
published,  will  be  found  very  suggestive  to  teachers 
in  respect  to  both  matter  and  method.  As  a  rule,  these 
lessons  should  be  taught  orally,  no  use  being  made  of 
books  by  the  pupils. 

The  following  topics,  prepared  by  Dr.  Larkin  Dunton, 
of  the  Boston  Normal  School,  will  be  found  useful  as 
showing  what  subjects  should    be    taught   in    the  pri- 


196  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

mary  grades  and  the  order  in  which   they  should   be 
taught. 

First  Year. 

I.  Pai-ts  of  the  Body.  1.  Head,  neck,  and  body  or  tnmk.  —  2.  Arms, 
right  and  left.  —  3.  Legs,  right  and  left.  —  4.  Limbs.  —  5.  Posi- 
tion of  body  compared  with  that  of  common  animals.  —  6.  Arras, 
wings,  and  forelegs  compared. 

II.  Parts  of  the  Head.  1.  Crown,  back  and  sides.  —  2.  Hair, 
combing  and  brushing.  —  3.  Face,  complexion,  and  washing  the 
face.  —  4.  Ears,  right  and  left. 

III.  Parts  of  the  Face.  1.  Forehead,  temples,  cheeks,  chin,  and 
lips.  —  2.  Eyes,  eyebrows,  eyelashes,  and  eyelids.  —  3.  Nose,  nos- 
trils, and  bridge  of  the  nose.  —  4.  Mouth,  teeth,  and  tongue ;  cleans- 
ing the  teeth. 

IV.  Neck.  1.  Throat  and  back  of  the  neck.  —  2.  Protection 
and  cleanliness. 

V.  Parts  of  the  Body.  1.  Back,  chest,  and  stomach.  —  2.  Shoul- 
ders, sides,  and  hips. 

VI.  Arms.  1.  Movements.  —  2.  Joints;  shoulders,  elbows,  and 
wrist.  —  3.  Upper  arm,  forearm,  and  wrist. 

VII.  Hand.  1.  Back,  palm,  thumb,  and  fingers.  —  2.  Joints, 
fists,  and  knuckles.  —  3.  Forefinger,  middle,  ring,  and  little  fingers, 
and  thumb.  —  4.  Motions,  strength,  and  use.  —  5.  Nails  and  their 
uses.  —  6.  Cleanliness ;  paring  and  biting. 

VIII.  Legs.  1.  Motions,  proper  walking,  and  hip,  knee,  and 
ankle  joints.  —  2.  Thigh,  shin,  calf,  and  foot. 

IX.  Feet.  1.  Sole,  instep,  heel,  ball,  and  arch. — 2.  Tight  and 
short  shoes,  and  cold  and  damp  feet.  —  3.  Cleanliness  of  feet,  and 
neat  shoes  and  stockings. 

Second  Year. 

X.  Eye  and  Sight.  1.  Color  of  the  eyes.  — 2.  White  of  the 
eyes,  iris,  and  pupil.  —  3.  Change  in  the  pupil  for  light.  —  4.  Bony 
socket  and  eyeball.  —  5.  Eyelids,  eyelashes,  eyebrows,  winking,  and 
tears.  —  6.  Too  little  and  too  much  light,  and  reading  at  twilight. 
—  7.  Holding  work  too  near,  looking  cross-eyed,  and  cleanliness. 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  197 

XI.  Ear  and  Hearing.  1.  Sounds  known  by  the  ear;  trans- 
mitted by  the  air  and  by  solids.  —  2.  Uii-ection,  pitch,  and  quality 
of  sounds.  —  3.  Shape  of  the  ear,  internal  ear,  and  cleanliness  of 
ear.  —  4.  "Care  of  the  ear:  cold  draughts,  pulling,  and  shouting 
into.  —  5.  Listening  attentively,  and  eavesdrojiping. 

XII.  Nose  and  Smell.  1.  Odors  :  piuigent,  aromatic,  spicy,  etc. — 
2.  Use  of  smell :  determining  good  food,  pure  air,  etc.  —  3.  Scent 
in  animals  compared  with  smell  in  man.  —  i.  Colds,  draughts,  ven- 
tilation, cleanliness,  etc. 

XIII.  Tongue  and  Taste.  1.  Tongue  and  saliva.  —  2.  Kinds  of 
flavors:  bitter,  sweet,  astringent,  etc.  —  3.  Chewing  gum,  tobacco, 
etc.  —  4.  Hot  drinks  and  strong  drinks.  —  5.  Thirst,  and  proper 
time  to  drink. 

XIV.  Touch.  1.  Use  of  fingers,  and  delicacy  of  touch.  —  2. 
Rough,  smooth,  etc. ;  cold,  hot,  etc. ;  shape,  size,  etc.  —  3.  Cleanli- 
ness, blisters,  callouses,  etc. 

Thikd  Ykau. 

XV.  Teeth.  1.  Enamel,  crown,  and  root.  —  2.  Cutting  teeth, 
eye-teeth,  and  double  teeth. — 3.  Two  sets,  shedding,  and  number. 
—  4.  Cleansing:  how  and  how  often.  —  5.  Effects  of  hot  drinks, 
candy,  pickles,  biting  hard  substances,  etc. 

XVI.  Skeleton.  1.  Skull,  spine,  ribs,  etc.. —  2.  Structure  of 
bones,  hollow  and  light.  —  3.  Kinds  of  joints,  why  joints  move 
easily,  and  danger  from  pulling. 

XVII.  Muscles.-  1.  Appearance ;  lean  meat.  —  2.  Attachment 
to  bones.  —  3.  Action  of  muscles. — 4.  Exercise,  proper  kinds  of 
play  and  work,  and  rest. 

XVIII.  Skin.  1.  Elasticity,  pores,  and  perspiration. — 2.  Cold 
draughts  and  proper  clothing.  —  3.  Cleanliness :  bathing,  dand- 
ruff, etc. 

XIX.  Circulation.  1.  Where  the  blood  is,  uses  of  the  blood  and 
heart,  and  the  pulse.  —  2.  Arteries  and  veins.  —  3.  Tight  bands, 
tight  clothes,  warmth  and  exercise,  wounds. 

XX.  Respiration.  1.  Pure  and  impure  blood,  windpipe  and 
lungs,  how  to  breathe.  —  2.  Pure  air,  and  how  to  get  it.  —  3.  Odors 
and  dust,  clean  bodies  and  clothes,  and  out-of-door  exercise. 


198  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

XXI.  Digestion.  1.  Use  of  teeth  and  saliva,  eating  slowly, 
drinking  when  eating.  —  2.  Proper  kinds  of  food  and  drink  ;  tea, 
candy,  pickles,  etc.  —  3.  Regular  and  late  meals,  chewing  gum,  etc. 

PLANTS. 

It  will  be  seen  in  the  Course  of  Studies  that  some -of 
the  topics  of  Plant  Lessons  which  are  prescribed  for 
grammar  grades,  are  also  prescribed  for  primary  grades. 
The  reason  of  this  arrangement  will  be  seen  when  it  is 
understood  that  in  the  primary  grades  only  the  most 
general  and  obvious  features  of  a  plant  are  to  be  ob- 
served, and  that  while  a  simple  classification  is  made 
by  pupils  of  the  lower  grades,  the  attention  there  is 
mainly  given  to  developing  the  observing  powers. 

In  the  first  year,  little  more  than  what  some  of  the 
children  already  know  should  be  taught,  the  chief  ob- 
jects being  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  plants  them- 
selves, and  to  encourage  a  spirit  of  investigation.  Lead 
the  children  to  recognize  some  simple  differences  and 
resemblances  in  common  plants  in  respect  to  size,  length 
of  stalk  or  trunk,  and  size,  color,  and  shape  of  the  flower 
and  leaf.  For  example,  statements  like  the  following 
might  be  drawn  from  the  children,  while  a  buttercup 
and  an  anemone  are  being  examined:  — 

They  grow  at  diiferent  heights  from  the  ground. 

The  flower-leaves  of  the  butter-cup  are  yellow,  and  those  of  the 

anemone  are  white. 
The  flower-leaves  of  the  buttercup  are  wider  than  those  of  the 

anemone. 
They  are  not  fragrant. 

When  any  plant  is  examined  and  talked  about,  en- 
courage the  children  to  bring  other  plants  similar  in 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  199 

respect  to  shape  of  leaves,  color  of  flower,  etc.  The 
teacher  should  sometimes  assist  the  children  in  their 
observation,  by  drawing  shapes  and  parts  of  the  leaf 
and  flower;  and  the  children  should  be  encouraged  to 
draw  the  various  shapes  as  they  are  observed. 

Many  of  the  most  common  trees,  shrubs,  and  wild 
flowers  should  be  examined  in  the  way  described  during 
the  first  year. 

In  the  second  year,  the  principal  parts  of  the  plant 
and  of  the  root,  stem,  bud,  leaf,  and  flower  should  be 
observed,  the  pupils  noting  resemblances  and  differences 
as  before.  When  the  different  parts  are  recognized, 
the  names  of  the  parts  should  be  given  by  the  teacher 
and  written  upon  the  blackboard ;  and  as  the  facts  are 
learned,  they  should  be  put  into  sentences  by  the  pu- 
pils. For  example,  the  children  may  observe  the  facts 
(the  teacher  giving  the  names)  and  afterwards  put 
them  into  sentences  as  follows:  — 

The  parts  of  a  flower  are  the  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils. 
The  parts  of  the  calyx  are  called  sepals. 
The  parts  of  the  corolla  are  called  petals. 

The  following  facts  may  be  learned  in  the  same  way 
during  the  second  year :  — 

I.    Stet7is,  Stalks,  or  Trunks. 

{round, 
three-sided, 
four-sided. 


2.  Parts: 


'■  bark . 

wood. 

pith. 

threads. 
.  fibres. 


200 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 


3.   Colors: 

\ 

f  green, 
red. 

4.    tJses. 

w  brown  etc. 

[I.   Leaves. 

'  oval. 

1.   Shapes: 

^ 

oblong, 
egg-shaped, 
heart-shaped. 
.  needle-shaped,  etc 

2.   Color. 

green, 
red. 
r  stem. 

3.    Parts: 

\ 

r  apex. 
i_  blade :  <  margin. 

I  surface. 
-  net- veined. 

4.   Veins  • 

\ 

parallel-veined. 
.  forked-veined. 
■  plain  or  even. 

5.   Shapes  of 

margin :    >!  wavy. 

I  toothed. 

'  smooth. 

rough. 

6.   Kinds  of  surfaces :  - 

woolly. 

hairy. 
L  silky. 

III.    BuAh. 

1.    Kinds: 

<  leaf-bud. 
(  flower-bud. 

2.  Shape : 

3.  Color. 

(  round. 
(  cone-like. 

4.   Parts- 

1  germ. 

I  ("scales). 

OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  201 

IV.    Flowers. 
1.   Shapes:  — 

Rose-shaped,     bell-shaped,     trumpet-shaped,     cross-shaped, 
wheel-shaped,  funnel-shaped,  etc. 

r  calyx,  sepals. 

2.  Parts  :  J  ^°^"°^1^'  P®**^^* 

]  stamens. 

L  pistils. 
'  red. 
blue. 

3.  Colors  :  -i  white. 

pink. 
I  scarlet,  etc. 

4.  Shapes  of  petals     5.   Number  of    petals  and  se- 

and  sepals.  pals. 

From  the  coininon  trees,  shrubs,  and  wild  flowers,  the 
children  should  observe  the  most  obvious  peculiarities 
of  each,  and  try  to  find  others  having  similar  peculiar- 
ities. 

As  the  parts  are  observed,  the  children  should  put 
the  facts  they  have  learned  into  a  simple  description, 
like  tlie  following:  — 

This  flower  has  a  light-colored  stem  and  heart-shaped  leaves. 
It  has  five  green  sepals  and  live  light  blue  petals. 
The  petals  are  all  of  the  same  shape. 
It  is  called  a  violet. 

Similar  descriptions  should  be  made  of  many  of  the 
common  plants  of  the  neighborhood.  Do  not  insist 
upon  or  encourage  a  set  form  of  description,  but  let  the 
pupils  exercise  freedom  and  originality  in  giving  the 
statement  of  facts  which  they  have  observed. 

In  the  third  year  some  of  the  interesting  facts  con- 


202  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

nected  with  the  history  of  plant  life  should  be  observed. 
Put  various  kinds  of  seeds  in  water  and  in  the  earth, 
and  watch  their  development  from  day  to  day.  Let 
the  children  notice  that  the  seed  contains  the  germ  of 
the  plant,  and  that  the  root  grows  downward,  while  the 
stalk  grows  upward.  Let  them  see  also  that  the  leaf- 
buds  have  a  hard  covering  like  varnish,  and  that  some 
of  them  have  scales  on  the  outside  and  a  woolly  lining 
on  the  inside.  The  development  of  the  flower-buds, 
flowers,  and  fruits  should  also  be  observed.  Most  of 
these  lessons  would  best  be  given  in  the  spring  of  the 
year. 

During  September  and  October  of  the  third  year  the 
uses  of  each  part  of  the  plant  may  be  observed,  espe- 
cially of  the  common  plants  used  for  food.  In  this  way 
the  classification  of  fruits,  vegetables,  and  grains  may 
be  made  and  their  various  differences  and  resemblances 
noted.  The  growing  and  ripening  grains  will  afford 
excellent  means  of  observation. 

The  study  of  plants  in  the  Grammar  grades  should  be 
more  minute  than  in  the  Primary  grades.  Parts  of  the 
plant  which  were  not  before  observed  are  now  noticed 
and  additional  names  are  given.  The  following  hints 
for  elementary  plant  lessons,  suggested  by  Mr.  George 
H.  Martin,  will  assist  teachers  in  the  selection  of  topics 
and  in  methods  of  teaching. 

The  Roman  numerals  indicate  the  grade  in  which  the 
lessons  should  be  given  —  although  teachers  of  Primary 
grades  will  find  the  simpler  parts  of  the  outline  none 
too  difficult  for  their  pupils. 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  203  j 

I 

OUTLINE   OF   STUDY.  : 

IV.    Lessons  to  teach  the  Parts  of  a  Plant. 

I 

1.  To  teach  to  name  the  parts.  ■ 

Root,  Stem,  Leaves,  Hairs,  Buds,  Flowers,  Fruit,  Seed.  < 

2.  Teach  to  describe  the  parts. 

Root.         The  root  lives  in  the  ground.  j 

Stem.     _   The  stem  bears  leaves.  i 

Leaves.     The  leaves  grow  on  the  stem.  ; 

The  leaves  are  thin.  \ 

The  leaves  are  flat.  ' 

The  leaves  are  green. 

Hairs.       The  hairs  grow  on  the  leaves  and  on  the  stem.  j 

BuDS%  The  buds  grow  on  the  stem.  i 

The  buds  are  full  of  little  leaves. 

Leaves  grow  from  buds.  ! 

Flowers.  The  flowers  grow  on  the  stem.  j 

The  flowers  are  bright  colored.  I 

The  flowers  smell  sweet. 

FuiiiT.        The  fruit  grows  on  the  stem.  | 

The  fruit  has  seeds  in  it. 

Seeds.        The  seeds  grow  in  the  fruit.  ; 

3.  Teach  to  name  and  describe  the  parts  of  a  leaf.  j 

Petiole,  Blade,  Stipules,  Veins.  I 

Petiole.    The  petiole  is  narrow.  j 
Blade.       The  blade  is  broad. 

Stii'ULEs.  The  stipules  are  like  little  blades.  ; 

The  stipules  are  at  lower  end  of  the  petiole.  | 

Veins.        The  veins  are  in  the  blade.  j 

The  veins  are  hard.  i 

"1 

4.  Teach  to  name  and  describe  the  parts  of  a  flower. 

Sepals,  Petals,  Stamens,  Pistils. 
Sepals.      The  sepals  are  on  the  outside  of  the  flower. 

The  sepals  are  green.  > 

(All  the  sepals  form  the  Calyx.)  \ 


204  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Petals.     The  petals  are  next  inside  the  calyx. 
The  petals  are  bright  colored. 
(All  the  petals  form  the  Corolla.) 
Stamens.  The  stamens  are  next  inside  the  corolla. 
The  stamens  have  two  parts. 

One  part  is  like  a  thread.     (Call  this  the  Fila- 
ment.) 
The  other  part  is  on  the  top  of  the  filament. 

(Call  this  the  Anther-.) 
In  the  anther  is  a  yellow  powder.     (Call  this 
Pollen.) 
Pistils.      The  pistils  are  in  the  middle  of  the  flower. 

The  pistils  are  larger  at  the  bottom  and  the  top. 
(Call  the  large  part  at  the  bottom  the  Ovary. 
Call  the  large  part  at  the  top  the  Stigma.  Call 
the  part  between  the  Style.) 
There  are  some  little  bodies  in  the  ovary.  (Call 
them  Ovules.) 

V.    Lessons  to  teach  History  of  Plant  Life, 

1.  Embryo. 

Illust.   A  bean  soaked  a  few  hours  in  water. 
There  is  a  little  stem  in  the  seed. 
There  are  two  little  leaves  in  the  seed. 
There  are  two  thick  parts  to  the  seed. 

2.  Growth. 

Illust.    Bean-plants  in  different  stages. 

A  root  grows  down  from  the  seed  into  the  ground. 

A  stem  grows  up  from  the  seed. 

The  two  thick  parts  come  above  the  ground. 

The  two  little  leaves  unfold  and  make  larger  leaves. 

3.  Buds. 

Illust.   Same  as  above. 

There  is  a  bud  between  the  two  leaves. 

This  bud  opens,  and  a  stem,  and  more  leaves  grow  from  it. 

The  plant  keeps  growing  from  buds. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  206  ] 

j 

4.    Flowers. 

lUust.    Pear,  apple,  or  cherry  flower-buds. 
The  flowers  come  from  flower-buds.  | 

5     Fruit.  1 

I  Hunt.    Apple,  pear,  or  cherry  flowers  as  the  petals  are  falling  ■. 

away.  ' 

The  ovary  grows.  j 

The  other  parts  of  the  flower  fall  away.  i 

The  ovary  makes  the  fruit.  , 

G.   Seeds. 

The  ovules  in  the  ovary  make  the  seed  \\\  the  fruit.  i 

Home  Study.  —  Cover  the  surface  of  water  in  a  tumbler  with 
cotton.     On  this  place  seeds  of  different  plants,  —  bean,  corn,  flax,  \ 

and  others,  —  and  put  in  the  sunlight.     Observe  carefully  daily, 
and  report  germination  of  each  kind,  and  subsequent  changes.  , 

VI.   Lessons  to  teach  Differences  m  Parts  of  Plants.  ■ 

Note.  —  The  order  of  the  study  of  the  parts  is  unimportant,  and  may  be 
determined  by  the  season.  Stems  may  be  studied  earlier  than  leaves  or 
flowers.  ! 

i 
1.   Difference  in  Stem.  1 

lUust.    A  section  of  stem  of  elder  one  inch  long,  ! 

(a)  In  structure.     The  elder  stem  is  soft  inside.  j 

The  elder  stem  is  soft  outside.  i 

The  elder  stem  has  a  hard  ring  between.  i 

Call  the  soft  part  inside  Pith. 

Call  the  hard  ring  Wood.  i 

Call  the  outside  part  Bark.  \ 

Illust.    A  section  of  banana  stem  one-half  inch  long. 

The  banana  stem  has  hard  threads  scattered   through  a 

soft  part. 
The  thread  looks  like  the  wood  in  the  elder. 
(h)   Tn  shape.     ) 

(c)    In  color.      >■  Teach  these  topics  as  above.  i 

(rf)  In  surface.  )  j 


206 


METHODS   OF  TEACHING, 


2.  Differences  in  Roots. 

Jllust.  Beet,  Gi'ass,  Dahlia. 
(a)  In  constitution.     The  beet  root  is  fleshy. 

The  grass  root  is  fibrous. 
(6)    In  shape.     The  dahlia  root  has  several  parts. 
The  beet  root  has  only  one  part. 

3.  Differences  in  Leaves. 

Illust.    A  variety  of  leaves. 
(a)   In  shape.     The  geranium  leaf  is  round. 

The  grass  leaf  is  long  and  narrow. 

The  white  birch  leaf  is  pointed  at  the  top. 

The  plum  leaf  is  round  at  the  top. 

The  horse-chestnut  leaflet  is  broad  at  the  top. 

The  horse-chestnut  leaflet  is  narrow  at  the  base. 

The  maple  leaf  is  broad  at  the  base. 

The  madeira-vine  leaf  has  an  even  edge. 

The  chestnut  leaf  has  an  uneven  edge. 

(6)   In  shape, 
(c)    In  surface. 
((?)  In  color, 
(e)    In  size. 
(/J  In  venation. 
{g)  In  composition, 
(/t)  In  phyllotaxy. 
(t)  In  vernation. 
(y)  In  completeness. 
(A;)   In  form,  size,  etc., 
■of  petiole. 

Note.  —  Have  shape,  venation,  composition,  phyllotaxy,  and  vernation 
of  leaves  shown  by  drawing  ou  slate  or  board. 

4.  Differences  in  Flowers. 

Illust.   Such  flowers  as  can  be  obtained  for  the  jiurpose. 
(a)  In  arrangement  of  parts: 

The  lilac  flower  has  the  sepals  united. 
The  lilac  flower  has  the  petals  united. 
The  lupine  flower  has  the  stamens  united. 


►  Teach  these  topics  as  above. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS. 


207 


(6) 
(0 

(d) 

(e) 
(/) 
(9) 
(A) 

(0 

(i) 
(^•) 

(0 
("0 


The  apple  flower  has  the  pistils  united. 

The  violet  flower  has  the  stamens  on  the  end  of  the  stem. 

The  apple  flower  has  the  stamens  on  the  calyx. 

The  lilac  flower  has  the  stamens  on  the  corolla. 

The  apple  flower  has  the  calyx  attached  to  the  ovary. 

In  color. 
In  odor. 


Teach  these  topics  as  above. 


Have  symmetry,  regularity, 


In  size. 
In  number. 

In  arrangement  on  stem. 
In  order  of  opening. 
In  completeness. 
In  symmetry. 
In  regularity. 
In  number  of  parts. 
In  shai^e  of  parts. 
In  arrangement  of  parts  in 
bud. 

Note.  —  Have  size  of  flowers  measured, 
and  shape  of  parts  shown  by  drawings, 

5.   Differences  in  Fruits. 

Illust.   Such  fruits  as  can  be  obtained, 
(a)    In  condition  when  ripe  :  Oranges  are  juicy. 

Apples  are  fleshy. 
Grapes  are  pulpy. 
Corn  is  dry. 


Teach  these  topics  as  above. 


6.   Differences  in  Seeds. 

Teach   differences   in  number,  size,  shape,  color,  surface, 

arrangement,  germination,  number  of  cotyledons. 
Have  shapes  shown  by  thawings. 


(6) 

In  size. 

(c) 

In  surface. 

id) 

In  color. 

(«) 

In  flavor. 

(/) 

In  shape. 

i<j) 

In  openings. 

(^) 

In  constitution. 

208 


METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


VII.     Lessons  to  teach  Differences  m  Habits  of  Plants. 

(a)    In  position  :  The  elm  grows  erect. 

The  squash  lies  on  the  ground. 

The  grape  climbs  by  stem  tendrils. 

The  ivy  climbs  by  rootlets. 

The  pea  climbs  by  leaf  tendrils. 

The  bean  twines.     In  what  direction  ? 

The  hop  twines.     In  what  direction  ? 
(h)  In  growing :   The  elm  grows  tall  with  one  woody  stem. 

The  currant  grows  low  with  several  woody 
stems. 

The  peony  grows  low  with  soft  stem. 

(c)  In  fruiting. 

(d)  In  locality. 

(e)  In  storing  food.      ,„      ,  , 
)  X    ^    ,         °.           y  Teach  as  above. 
(/)  In  branching. 

(</)  In  blooming. 

(/j)  In  multiplying. 


VII.   Lessons  on  the  Uses  of  Plants. 

1.  What  part  of  plant  is  useful  ?     For  what  'I 

Illust.  —  The  potato  plant. 

The  underground  stem  of  potato  is  used  for  food. 
Starch  is  obtained  from  it, 

2.  In  what  ways  useful? 

(rt)    For  food  :   It  is  nutritious. 

It  has  not  a  strong  flavor. 

It  is  easily  cultivated. 

It  yields  abundantly, 
(i)  For  starch  :  It  contains  much  starch. 

Note.  —  Care  is  needed  in  these  lessons  to  adapt  the  subject  and  the 
method  to  the  capacity  of  pupils.  The  lesson  outlined  above  is  not  suited 
to  youngest  pupils. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  209 

VIII.    Lessons  on  Special  /Subjects. 

Forest  Trees. 

fllust.  —  The  chestnut-tree. 

(a)  Size.         The  chestnut  is  a  tall  tree  with  long,  spreading 

branches. 

(b)  Stkm.        It  has  one  straight  stem. 

(c)  Bakk.       The  bark  is  gray,  hard,  and  close;  has  long  par- 

allel cracks. 
((/)  Leaves.    The  leaves  are  very  long. 

The  length  is        times  the  breadth. 

They  are  long  and  pointed  at  the  top. 

The  edge  has  hollows  separated  by  sharp  points. 

The  leaves  are  paler  on  the  under  side. 

They  have  a  short  leaf  stem. 
(e)   Frt'it.       The  fruit  is  covered  with  a  bristly  burr  and  con- 
tains from  one  to  three  nuts. 
(/)  Wood.      The  wood  is  coarse-grained  and  has  large  pores. 

ANIMALS. 

Some  of  the  lessons  on  animals  may  have  to  be  given 
by  means  of  pictures,  although,  so  far  as  it  is  possible 
to  do  so,  the  animals  themselves,  either  alive,  stuffed, 
dried,  preserved  in  alcohol,  or  mounted,  should  be 
brought  before  the  pupils  for  observation.  Generally, 
the  preserved  specimens  will  be  found  better  for  class 
use  than  the  living  animals.  A  collection  of  specimens 
should  be  in  a  cabinet  close  at  hand,  the  pupils  being 
encouraged  to  add  to  it  a  few  specimens  each  year. 

The  work  involved  in  collecting  and  preparing  speci- 
mens for  observation  may  deter  some  teachers  from 
carrying  on  these  lessons ;  but  if  a  beginning  is  made, 
and  the  co-operation  of  pupils  is  secured,  there  will  be 
little  danger  of  failure  on  this  account.     Some  of  the 


210  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

specimens  may  be  found  all  ready  for  observation,  as 
the  crab,  starfish,  coral,  sponge,  and  a  few  of  the  insects. 
Stuffed  birds  may  be  bought  for  a  small  sum  of  a  tax- 
idermist, and  a  few  of  the  animals  needed  may  be  pro- 
cured at  the  provision  store.  A  large  number  of  the 
animals,  however,  will  have  to  be  caught,  killed,  and 
prepared  for  class  use  by  the  teachers  and  older  pupils. 

Insects  may  be  caught  with  a  net  made  of  a  stick, 
hoop,  and  mosquito  netting.  For  killing  the  insects, 
have  a  bottle  of  chloroform,  ether,  or  benzine,  with  a 
camel's-hair  brush  attached  inside  to  the  cork ;  or  they 
may  be  killed  by  throwing  them  into  a  bottle  containing 
cotton  saturated  with  ether.  When  they  are  dead,  they 
may  be  dried  and  mounted  upon  cards  or  slices  of  cork, 
with  pins  thrust  through  the  thorax.  For  some  pur- 
poses, it  will  be  found  best  to  preserve  the  insects  in 
alcohol.  When  this  is  done,  let  the  insects  be  soaked 
in  water  for  a  time  before  using,  to  take  out  the  alco- 
holic  odor.  Further  suggestions  for  mounting  and  pre- 
serving specimens  will  be  found  in  any  good  text-book 
of  zoology. 

If  one  specimen  for  each  pupil  cannot  be  provided, 
allow  three  or  four  pupils  to  look  at  one  specimen ;  or  if 
there  is  only  a  single  specimen  for  the  entire  class  or 
school,  have  the  specimen  examined  by  the  pupils  in 
groups. 

In  all  grades,  both  teacher  and  pupil  should  use  the 
pencil  and  chalk  freely  in  drawing  the  shapes  of  the 
several  parts,  and  in  locating  the  parts,  after  they  have 
been  observed. 

The  use  of  animals,  and  the  importance  of  kindness 
toward  them,  should  be  impressed  upon  children  of  all 
ages  in  connection  with  these  lessons. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  211 

Primary  Grades.  —  The  first  lessons  should  be  upon 
those  animals  which  are  most  familiar,  as  the  cat,  dog, 
horse,  cow,  rabbit,  hen,  duck,  pigeon,  frog.  These  and 
a  few  others  of  which  these  are  types,  will  be  all  that  it 
will  be  well  to  observe  during  the  first  year.  In  these 
early  lessons  only  the  most  obvious  features  of  each 
animal  should  be  considered,  as,  for  example :  the  num- 
ber and  shape  of  ears ;  number  and  shape  of  legs ; 
number  and  shape  of  toes  or  claws ;  kind  of  covering ; 
uses  of  parts ;  etc.  It  will  be  remembered  that  parts  of 
the  human  body  are  studied  in  the  primary  school.^ 
This  work  will  greatly  assist  in  the  observation  of  parts 
of  the  lower  animals,  and  should  go  on  at  the  same 
time. 

In  the  second  and  third  years,  observation  and  com- 
parison of  common  animals,  including  domestic  animals 
and  the  common  fowls,  birds,  and  insects,  should  be 
continued.  The  observation  and  naming  of  parts  should 
occur  throughout  the  course,  care  being  taken  not  to 
tell  what  the  children  can  see  for  themselves,  and  not 
to  proceed  too  rapidly.  Such  animals  and  specimens  as 
can  be  most  easily  procured  should  be  observed.  What 
the  children  observe  is  of  far  less  consequence  than  the 
fact  that  they  do  observe  some  animal  every  day  in  a 
proper  way.  It  may  be  necessary  to  direct  the  atten- 
tion of  children  to  certain  animals  which  cannot  con- 
veniently be  brought  into  the  schoolroom.  Their 
observation  of  such  animals  will  have  to  be  made  out 
of  school  hours,  the  facts  observed  to  be  subsequently 
stated  in  recitation. 

Only  the  most  prominent  parts  of  insects  should  be 

1  p.  195. 


212  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

observed  at  this  time,  such  as  the  head,  thorax,  and 
abdomen ;  feelers,  eyes,  wings,  and  legs.  Interesting 
facts  and  stories  may  be  told  or  read  to  children  in  con- 
nection with  the  lessons  upon  insects. 

Resemblances  and  differences  in  the  parts  and  habits 
of  animals  should  also  he  taught  during  the  second  and 
third  years.  These  lessons  may  be  pursued  in  the  fol- 
lowing order  :  (1)  resemblances  and  differences  in 
many  parts  of  two  animals;  (2)  resemblances  and  dif- 
ferences in  a  few  parts  of  three  animals ;  (3)  resem- 
blances and  differences  in  single  parts  of  several  ani- 
mals. The  resemblances  and  differences  in  the  habits 
of  animals  may  have  respect  to  manner  of  locomotion, 
of  getting  food,  and  of  eating  and  drinking. 

In  comparing  animals,  resemblances  are  given  first ; 
afterward,  differences.  Let  the  children  draw  their  own 
inferences. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  points  are  to  be  developed 
in  these  early  lessons,  the  following  examples  are  given. 
The  questions  and  statements  merely  indicate  the  kind 
of  observation  which  may  be  made. 

1.  To  teach  resemblances  and  differences  in  parts  and  habits  of  two 
animals.  —  Compare  hen  and  duck,  as  to  size,  shape  of  head,  length 
and  shape  of  bill,  comb,  shape  of  body,  shape  of  legs,  size  and 
shape  of  wings,  thickness  of  feathers,  tail  feathers,  condition  of 
feet,  habits  in  getting  food,  habits  in  walking,  habits  in  eating  and 
drinking. 

2.  To  teach  resemblances  and  differences  in  several  parts  of  ani- 
7nals.  —  Compare  horse,  cow,  and  sheep  as  to  («)  size;  (6)  cover- 
ing; (c)  teeth;  (r/)  tail;  (e)  horns,  etc. 

Write  complete  sentences. 

3.  To  teach  resendtlances  and  differences  in  animals  in  respect  to 
one  part.  —  What  animals  have  hair  ?     What  have  wool  V     What 


OBSEKVATION    LESSONS.  213 

have  feathers?  What  birds  have  long  bills?  What  birds  have 
short  bills  ?  What  have  straight  bills  ?  What  wide  ?  What  nar- 
row? 

In  the  same  way  teach  differences  of  animals  as  to  (a)  mouth ; 
(b)  feet ;  (c)  ears ;  (d)  wings. 

Graniinar  Grades.  — •  The  aim  of  the  work  during 
the  fourth  and  fifth  years  is  mainl}-  to  lead  pupils  to 
observe  for  themselves  the  parts  of  several  animals.  It 
will  be  well  at  this  stage  to  have  some  system  or  order 
in  the  observation.  The  animal  should  first  be  exam- 
ined as  a  whole,  and  afterwards  in  parts,  in  regular 
order.  Some  facts  respecting  the  size,  form,  surface 
color,  position,  and  uses,  should  be  observed  and  stated 
by  the  pupils,  the  teacher  merely  directing  the  observa- 
tions and  correcting  errors. 

The  names  of  animals  to  be  observed  are  given  in  the 
course  for  graded  schools.  The  observation  of  each  of 
these  animals  —  or  others  of  which  these  are  types  — 
should  be  as  minute  as  time  and  the  ability  of  pupils 
will  permit.  Only  a  few  points  should  be  observed  at 
each  lesson,  care  being  taken  to  allow  time  for  every 
pupil  to  observe  each  point.  Complete  statements  of 
facts  observed  should  be  made  by  the  pupils,  but  they 
should  be  given  freely  and  naturally. 

To  show  what  it  is  possible  for  pupils  of  the  lower 
grammar  grades  to  see,  and  also  to  show  a  good  method  ^ 
of  directing  their  observation,  the  following  lessons  are 
given.     They  are  by  Miss  J.  M.  Arms,  of  Boston. 

THE  LOCUST,   OR  "GRASSHOPPER." 

The  children  may  begin  the  study  of  insects  with  the  locust,  or 
"  grasshopper,"  as  it  is  commonly  called,  because  it  is  a  good  type 

J  For  method,  see  the  forthcomiug  Guide  for  Science  Teaching,  No. 
VIII.,  by  Alpheus  Hyatt. 


214  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

of  the  whole  class  of  insects,  and  is  familiar  to  them.  To  insure 
the  best  success,  each  child  should  be  provided  with  an  alcoholic 
specimen,  which  may  be  pinned  to  a  small  strip  of  cork  to  aid  in 
handling.  The  children  observe  the  body  first,  afterwards  the 
parts  fastened  to  the  body.  By  questions  the  teacher  leads  the 
children  to  tell  her  that  the  body  is  long,  and  that  a  part  of  it  is 
round.  She  asks,  "  Is  it  round  like  a  ball,  or  round  like  a  tube  ?  " 
[showing  ball  and  tube],  and  they  answer,  "Round,  like  a  tube." 

They  tell  her  that  the  body  is  yellow,  brown,  and  red.  She  asks, 
"Are  the  two  sides  alike  or  unlike?"  They  think  the  sides  are 
alike,  so  that  the  locust  has  a  right  and  left  side,  like  their  own 
bodies. 

They  say  that  the  body  is  divided  into  three  parts,  —  a  head,  a 
"tail,"  which  the  teacher  calls  the  abdomen,  and  between  these  two 
parts,  a  middle  and  larger  part,  which  (having  taken  the  lesson  on 
the  lobster)  they  think  is  the  thorax. 

Having  observed  and  described  the  body,  as  a  whole,  they  next 
observe  the  three  parts  more  closely.  The  head,  they  say,  is  long 
in  an  "  up  and  down  "  direction,  and  the  teacher  gives  the  word 
vertical,  and  writes  it  on  the  board.  They  say  that  it  is  narrow, 
that  it  has  two  "horns"  which  the  teacher  calls  "feelers,"  and 
that  it  has  two  "  things  "  which  they  think  are  eyes,  one  on  each 
side. 

Before  this  they  have  noticed  that  the  head  moves  quite  freely 
up  and  down,  or  in  a  vertical  direction,  and  sideways ;  also,  that 
when  the  head  moves,  the  forward  part  of  the  thorax  moves. 

Observing  now  the  thorax,  they  often  describe  the  forward  part 
as  a  cape.  [We  have  noticed  that  little  girls  are  very  apt  to  call 
it  "  a  cape,"  and  little  boys  "  a  saddle."]  They  think  that  the 
thorax  looks  somewhat  "  like  a  box,"  flat  on  the  lower  side,  with 
"  queer  marks  "  on  it,  and  with  lines  on  the  sides.  The  teacher 
gives  the  word  "seams"  for  these  lines,  so  that  the  thorax  is 
seamed.  The  children  find  that  the  legs  and  wings  are  fastened 
to  this  part  of  the  body. 

The  "tail"  is  longer  than  the  head  and  thorax.  The  children 
see  lines  running  round  it. 

The  teacher  asks,  "  What  have  I  in  my  hand  ?  "  The  children 
answer  at  once,  "  A  ring." 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  215 

"  Is  it  a  gold  ring? "     "  No,  it  is  a  paper  ring." 

"  What  is  this?"  asks  the  teacher.  "  Three  or  four  paper  rings 
fastened  together  with  tissue-paper." 

"  Do  the  rings  move  upon  each  other,  or  are  they  fastened 
so  tightly  together  that  they  cannot  move?"  "  They  move  upon 
each  other." 

"  'Sow  look  at  the  locust's  '  tail,'  and  tell  me  something  more 
about  it."  Most  of  the  children  are  pretty  sure  to  say  that  the 
"  tail "  is  ringed,  and  that  the  rings  move  upon  each  other.  Some 
count  six  rings,  others  seven,  and  two  or  thi'ee  are  sure  there  are 
eight.  The  number  of  rings  is  a  matter  cf  little  importance, 
as  it  is  difficult  to  make  out,  and  is,  therefore,  work  for  older 
pupils. 

The  children  next  see  the  line  or  crea.se  running  from  the  tho- 
rax to  the  end  of  the  "  tail."  Above  the  crease  on  each  side 
they  see,  if  their  eyes  are  very  keen,  a  row  of  tiny  slits.  These, 
they  are  interested  to  know,  are  the  breathing-holes  of  the  locust. 
This  offers  an  opportunity  to  the  teacher  to  speak  of  the  wonder- 
ful little  tubes  and  sacs  which  the  locust  possesses,  and  which, 
when  filled  with  air,  lighten  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  help  the 
insect  to  fly.  At  the  end  of  the  '•  tail  "  they  see  the  organ  which  is 
used  for  boring  holes  in  the  earth  in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited. 
For  this  reason  the  organ  may  be  called  ati  egg-depositor. 

Having  carefully  observed  the  body,  they  are  ready  to  examine 
the  parts  fastened  to  it.  They  say  the  feelers  are  long,  like  "  big 
threads,"  and  "  made  of  little  pieces."  Below  the  feelers  they  find 
the  upper  lip,  with  the  two  hard,  dark-brown  "  teeth  "  beneath, 
and  back  of  these,  four  little  organs  they  often  call  "whiskers," 
but  which  the  teacher  tells  them  are  organs  used,  possibly,  in  ob- 
taining food. 

The  children  are  too  young  to  make  out  the  thi'ee  pair  of  mouth- 
parts  satisfactorily.  A  blackboard  drawing  will  show  these  parts, 
if  the  teacher  wishes  to  resort  to  such  a  drawing,  but  I  prefer  to 
pass  over  the  subject  till  the  children  are  old  enough  to  find  the 
mouth-parts  and  make  their  own  drawings.  It  often  happens  that 
some  member  of  the  class  has  seen  a  locust  eat,  and  can  tell  the 
others  how  it  bites  and  chews  grass,  and  how  the  "  teeth  "  move 
sideways  instead  of  vertically,  like  their  teeth. 


216  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Looking  at  the  parts  fastened  to  the  thorax,  every  child  can 
describe  the  three  pair  of  legs.  Every  child  sees  that  each  leg  is 
made  of  pieces  which  move  upon  each  other,  so  that  the  leg  is 
jointed.  Every  one  finds  that  each  leg  has  two  little  hooks  at  its 
end,  the  use  of  which  each  must  try  to  find  out  when  the  summer 
comes  again.  Every  one  sees  that  the  last  pair  of  legs  is  longer 
and  larger  than  the  other  two  pair,  and  are  prettily  marked.  Many 
are  eager  to  tell  their  teacher  that  the  locust  jumps  with  these  legs, 
and  all  agree  that  the  insect  is  a  good  leaper. 

In  the  lesson  on  the  lobster,  the  children  have  seen  the  feelers, 
mouth-parts,  and  walking-legs  on  a  large  scale,  and  can  better 
understand  the  structure  of  these  parts  in  insects. 

The  children  spread  out  the  wings  on  one  side.  The  -first  or 
upper  pair  they  say  are  long,  narrow,  brown,  with  stiff  "things"  in 
them,  which  the  teacher  calls  "  veins."  They  cannot  see  objects 
distinctly  through  them.  These  the  teacher  calls  "wing-covers." 
The  second  or  lower  pair  they  say  are  broad,  white,  with  stiff  veins 
in  the  longest  part,  and  "little  veins"  in  the  shortest  part.  They 
can  see  objects  distinctly  through  them.  They  say  these  wings 
are  folded  like  a  fan,  and  lie  straight  with  the  body.  The  teacher 
calls  them  true  wings.  The  children  compare  the  true  wings  with 
the  wing-covers. 

.  Observing  the  egg-depositor,  they  say  there  are  four  distinct 
parts  that  are  hard  and  strong ;  two  of  these  parts  curve  upwai'd, 
and  two  downward. 

After  the  observations  are  finished,  simple  drawings  and  written 
descriptions  are  required. 

Outline  of  the  Lesson  on  the  Locust. 

1.  Body.  General  description  :  long ;  tube-like ;  yellow,  brown, 
red ;  two  sides  alike.    Divided  into  three  parts  :  head,  thorax,  tail. 

Parts  described :  (\)  Head :  long  vertically ;  narrow;  bears  two 
feelers ;  has  two  eyes ;  set  upon  a  neck  ;  moves  vertically  and  side- 
ways. (2)  Thorax:  box-shaped;  forward  part  like  a  cape;  flat  on 
lower  side;  seamed;  bears  legs  and  wings.  (3)  ^^Tail":  long;  ringed; 
has  two  rows  of  breathing-holes  ;  bears  organ  for  depositing  eggs. 

2.  Parts  fastened  to  the  Body.  One  pair  feelers :  long,  thread- 
like.    One  pair  "  teeth  "  :  brown,  stout,  notched,  move  sideways. 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  217 

Two  pair  thread-like  organs.  Three  pair  legs  :  jointed,  hooked,  of 
unequal  length  and- size  ;  last  pair  (leaping-legs),  long,  large,  strong. 
Two  pair  wings  (wing-covers  and  true  wings).  Wing-covers  brown, 
stiff,  not  transparent,  veins  large.  True  wings  white^  transparent, 
folded  like  a  fan,  lie  straight  with  body.  Egg-depositor,  —  four 
distinct  parts,  —  stout,  curved,  horny. 

THE  DRAGOX-FLY. 

When  the  locust  is  familiar,  the  dragon-fly  is  observed  in  the 
same  order,  and  afterward  compared  with  the  locust. 

We  will  omit  the  observations  on  the  dragon-fly,  and  pass  to  the 
comparative  work. 

The  children  tell  their  teacher  that  the  dragon-fly  is  like  the 
locust  because  it  has  a  long,  tube-like  body ;  because  the  two  sides 
of  the  body  are  alike ;  because  the  body  is  divided  into  three  parts, 
which  they  are  now  ready  to  call  the  head,  thorax,  and  "tail." 
They  say  that  the  head  has  two  eyes,  like  that  of  the  locust ;  that 
the  thorax,  or  middle  pai't,  bears  the  legs  and  wings ;  that  the 
'*  tail  "  is  long  and  ringed. 

They  also  see  that  the  dragon-fly  resembles  the  locust  in  having 
one  pair  of  feelers,  an  upper  lip,  and  one  pair  of  dark  "  teeth." 
They  are  not  sure  of  the  little  organs  back  of  the  "teeth,"  but 
they  are  sure  that  the  dragon-fly  has  three  pair  of  legs  and  two 
pair  of  wings,  like  the  locust.  They  also  see  an  egg-depositor  at 
the  end  of  the  tail. 

When  the  childi-en  look  for  differences,  they  are  quick  to  say 
that  the  body  of  the  dragon-fly  is  longer  than  that  of  the  locust, 
and  that  the  three  parts  look,  as  a  little  child  once  told  me,  "  as  if 
they  were  not  put  together  very  tight,"  which  is  another  way  of 
saying  that  the  parts  of  the  dragon-fly  are  not  as  closely  consoli- 
dated as  those  of  the  locust.  They  say  that  the  head  is  shorter 
vertically,  and  broader;  the  eyes  a  great  deal  larger;  the  head 
"ever  so  much  looser,"  or,  as  the  teacher  says,  much  more  loosely 
attached  ;  the  thorax  more  hunch-backed  ;  the  "  tail "  more 
slender. 

They  also  say  that  the  feelers  are  shorter;  the  legs  smaller, 
and  more  nearly  equal  in  size ;  the  wings  longer,  more  finely 
reined,   and    more    useful    as    flying-organs.      They  have   com© 


218  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

to  this  last  conclusion  by  their  own  efforts,  unaided  by  the 
teacher. 

After  these  comparisons  have  been  made,  the  children  draw  the 
inferences  that  the  dragon-fly  bites  its  food,  and  that  it  is  a  good 
flyer,  and  not  a  leaper. 

In  this  way  the  interesting  habits  of  insects,  and  their  wonderful 
powers  of  adaptation,  are  brought  out  clearly. 

The  following  statements  of  facts,  prepared  from 
observation  of  specimens  by  pupils  of  a  normal  school, 
will  be  helpful  to  some  teachers.  Pupils  of  grammar- 
school  age  may  not  be  able  to  observe  all  the  points 
that  are  indicated  in  the  notes ;  but  with  a  good  mag- 
nifying-glass  most  of  the  facts  may  be  ascertained  and 
expressed  by  the  pupils. 

With  a  good  elementary  text-book  as  a  guide,  similar 
notes  upon  other  animals  may  be  made.  It  is  advisable 
for  teachers  to  examine  a  specimen,  and  to  note  the 
various  points  to  be  observed,  before  the  lesson  begins. 

THE   COMMON   ANT. 

Color.  —  Brownish  red. 

Size.  —  About  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long. 

Pni-tif.  —  Three  divisions:  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 

The  head  is  about  one-fourth  the  size  of  the  whole  animal,  and 
is  slightly  triangular  in  shape,  looking  at  it  in  front.  There  are  two 
eyes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  head.  Projecting  from  the  front  of 
the  head,  near  the  eyes,  are  two  antennaj,  which  are  twice  jointed, 
the  second  joint  being  notched.  The  mouth  is  provided  with 
strong  jaws,  called  mandibles,  for  tearing  the  food,  and  under- 
neath are  the  inner  jaws. 

The  thorax  connects  the  head  and  abdomen,  and  is  smaller  in 
diameter  than  either  of  the  other  parts.  It  is  covered  on  the  top 
by  a  shield-shaped  portion.  The  juncture  of  the  thorax  and  ab- 
domen is  very  slender,  and  consists  of  one  knob,  or  ring. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  219 

The  ant  has  three  pairs  of  legs,  all  placed  upon  the  thorax.  The 
legs  are  five-jointed,  the  first  joint  being  the  smallest ;  and  from 
the  third  is  a  projection  called  the  spur.  The  spur  on  the  two 
front  legs  is  larger  than  on  the  others.  The  last  joint  is  notched, 
or  toothed,  a  great  many  times. 

The  abdomen  is  marked  by  rings,  which  separate  it  into  six 
segments.  These  segments  differ  in  size,  the  last  one  being  the 
smallest ;  and  the  effect  is  to  make  the  abdomen  taper  to  a  point. 
These  segments  allow  of  the  abdomen's  being  bent  very  easily. 
The  sides  of  the  abdomen  are  covered  wdth  little  hairs. 

THE   DOR-BUG. 

Size.  —  About  seven-eigliths  of  an  inch  long  and  one-half  of  an 
inch  wide. 

Form.  —  Oblong  in  shape,  slightly  rounded  at  both  ends. 

Color.  —  Dark  brown  on  the  upper  side  ;  yellowish  brown  on  the 
under  side. 

Parts.  —  Three  parts  :  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 

The  head  is  the  smallest  of  the  three  parts.  All  the  divisions 
of  the  body  are  jointed.  It  has  two  compound  eyes,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  front  part  of  the  head.  Between  the  eyes 
are  the  antennce,  which  are  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
and  have  little  oblong  knots  at  the  end.  They  are  used  as 
feelers.  On  the  forward  portion  of  the  head  are  the  mouth- 
parts.  These  are  so  small  that  only  the  jaws  can  be  seen,  and 
those  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  The  jaws  come  from  the  sides 
of  the  mouth. 

To  the  under  side  of  the  tliorax  are  attached  three  pairs  of  legs. 
The  legs  of  the  first  pair  have  three  parts.  The  division  nearest 
the  body  is  smooth,  and  larger  than  the  other  two.  The  middle 
division  is  shorter,  and  notched.  The  last  division  is  jointed, 
notched,  and  at  tlie  end  has  two  little  claws.  The  notches  and 
claws  enable  it  to  fasten  itself  to  objects.  The  second  and  third 
pairs  of  legs  have  the  same  structure  as  the  first  pair.  On  the 
upper  side  of  the  thorax  are  two  pairs  of  wings.  The  outer  pair 
are  brown,  oblong,  pointed  at  the  back,  glossy,  and  firm  of  texture. 
This  pair  is  attached  to  the  .second  segment  of  thorax.     Undei 


220  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

this  is  a  pair  of  gauzy  wings.  The  second  pair  are  larger,  are 
shaped  like  half  a  lilac  leaf,  and  have  several  strong  veins  run- 
ning through  the  thin  tissue.  One  strong  vein  extends  along  the 
straight  edge,  and  enables  the  wing  to  cut  more  easily  through  the 
air.  This  pair  is  attached  to  the  third  segment  of  thorax.  When 
at  rest,  they  are  folded  under  the  thicker  wings,  which  protect  them 
The  back  of  each  wing  folds  under  the  front  part,  and  both  cross 
under  the  shield-wings. 

The  abdomen  is  oval  in  shape.  It  has  divisions,  or  segments. 
The  largest  segment  is  near  the  thorax.  From  this  they  diminish 
in  size  to  the  end  of  the  body. 

BLACK  SPIDER. 

Black,  with  some  brown  markings  upon  it.  Width,  not  includ- 
ing legs,  about  one-fourth  of  length.     of  an  inch  long. 

Body  consists  of  two  principal  parts  of  about  the  same  size, 
connected  by  a  small,  narrow  part.  On  the  forward  part  of  one  of 
the  large  divisions  is  the  head,  which  is  simply  a  continuation  of 
the  division.  On  the  top  of  the  head  are  a  pair  of  eyes  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  apart :  below  these,  on  the  front  part  of  head, 
are  another  larger  pair  of  eyes  nearer  together ;  and  below  these, 
on  the  lower  part,  are  four  more  eyes,  arranged  in  a  horizontal  line. 
From  the  lower  part  of  the  head  projects  downward  a  pair  of  jaws 
which  are  long  and  strong.  On  the  end  of  each  jaw  is  a  little 
i]ook  pointing  inwards.  In  the  end  of  each  hook  is  a  tiny  hole. 
Passing  a  pin  between  the  jaws,  teeth  are  discovered  on  the  sides 
of  the  jaw  nearest  together.  These  teeth  extend  about  half-way 
up  the  sides  of  the  jaws.  Under  the  jaws  is  the  mouth,  wliich  has 
a  lower  lip,  but  no  upper  lip.  Attached  to  the  back  of  the  upper 
end  of  each  jaw  is  a  jointed  part,  or  feeler,  consisting  of  four  joints. 
On  the  under  side  of  the  forward  division  (cepJialo  thorax)  are 
four  pair  of  legs.  They  are  seven-jointed.  The  first  pair  are 
larger  than  any  of  the  others,  the  second  pair  next  in  size,  the 
third  pair  are  the  smallest.  The  legs  are  covered  with  little  black 
hairs,  especially  numerous  on  the  lower  joints. 

The  second  large  division  (ahdomcn)  is  almost  spheroidal  in 
form,  and  on  the  upper  side  is  covered  with  hairs.     On  the  under 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  221 

side  of  the  abdomen,  on  the  end  nearest  the  thorax,  is  an  opening 
on  each  side  of  which  is  a  semicircular  slit.  Below  these  parts 
on  or  near  the  end  are  projections  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  circle. 

CLAM. 

1.  Shell. 

(1)  Three  to  five  inches  long,  two  inches  wide.  Ovate  and 
eonvex  in  shape.  Edge  entire.  Thinnest  part  near  the  edge. 
Broader  end  tailed  anterior  end ;  narrower  end  called  posterior 
end.  If  posterior  end  is  nearest  you  and  hinge  is  up,  the  part  of 
shell  to  the  right  will  be  the  right  valve ;  the  part  of  shell  to  the 
left  will  be  the  left  valve.  (2)  On  the  inside  of  shell  there  is  a 
narrow  band  of  dull  white  near  edge;  broader  band  of  glossy 
white  inside  of  this,  from  which  a  portion  projects  toward  centre 
at  posterior  end.  In  centre  a  dull  white  portion,  at  anterior  end, 
is  a  glossy  white  elliptical  spot.  At  posterior  end  is  a  glossy 
white  circular  spot.  (3)  The  outside  of  shell  is  dull  white  in 
color.  There  are  concentric  rings  which  grow  farther  apart  as 
they  near  the  edge.  Rather  rough  surface.  (4)  In  the  hinge 
there  is  a  projection  from  left  valve ;  depression  on  right  valve. 

2.  Live  animal. 

(1)  Mantle.  Covers  the  outside  of  valves  except  where  worn 
in  exposed  parts.  Internal  parts  covered  by  mantle,  which  serves 
also  as  lining  for  valves.  The  part  of  mantle  exposed  when  valves 
are  opened  is  thickened  and  of  a  darker  color.  (2)  Muscles. 
Lying  near  inner  end  of  shell  is  a  thick  muscle  which  protects 
the  interior  from  injury.  A  dark  brown  elastic  substance  placed 
whei'e  the  two  valves  fit  into  each  other  serves  to  keep  the  valves 
apart.  The  anterior  adduct  r  is  attached  to  the  glossy  spot  in 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  valves ;  composed  of  many  thread-like 
bands  of  muscle  which  serve  to  close  the  valves.  The  posterior 
adductor  is  attached  to  a  circular  portion  in  posterior  end. 
(3)  Siphon.  Projection  from  posterior  end ;  tubular  in  shape ;  can 
be  extended  during  life  eight  or  ten  incheg ;  dark  colored,  covered 
by  mantle ;  tough  texture ;  two  openings  leading  into  tubes ;  little 
fringe  around  openings.  (4)  Gills.  Extending  from  between 
two  anterior  openings  of  siphon  to  beyond  hinge  of  valves ;  fan- 
like in  shape;  marked  with  parallel  ridges  extending  from  base  to 


222  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

edge ;  both  gills  same  form  and  size ;  edge  entire.  Two  similar 
gills  below  the  body.  (5)  Body.  Same  size  as  gills ;  light  color 
with  dark  streaks;  thickened  and  rounded  in  form;  projection  at 
anterior  end  (foot)  ;  attached  to  line  of  division.  (0)  Ribbons. 
Anterior  end  of  body;  length  the  width  of  gills;  thin  and  narrow; 
all  alike;  two  above  and  two  below  the  body.  (7)  Mouth.  Dark 
colored  spot  situated  where  four  ribbons  unite;  entrance  into 
body.  (8)  Foot.  At  lower  anterior  end  of  body;  thickened 
tough  projection ;  expands  on  absorbing  water ;  f)rotrudes  from 
slit  in  muscle.  (9)  Slit.  Situated  in  lower  anterior  portion  of 
muscle  which  lies  around  edge  of  shell. 

CORAL. 

Materials.  • —  Pieces  of  the  skeleton  of  one  kind  of  coral,  enough 
for  each  pupil  to  have  one  piece.  A  whole  mass  of  the  same  kind 
of  coral,  if  it  can  be  obtained.  The  Galaxea  coral  is  a  particularly 
good  one  for  study  because  the  parts  are  large. 

Observation  of  Skeleton  of  Galaxea. —  It  is  white,  com- 
posed of  little  cylindrical  tubes  imbedded  in  a  white  porous  sub- 
stance. When  scratched  with  a  knife-blade,  the  tubes  and  porous 
substance  are  equally  marked.  When  a  bit  of  each  is  placed  in  a 
separate  glass  with  a  little  nniriatic  acid,  the  acid  froths,  and  the 
bit  of  coral  is  dissolved.  [^Ve  infer  from  the  equal  hardness  and 
the  like  behavior  with  muriatic  acid  that  both  parts  of  the  skele- 
ton of  coral  are  of  the  same  material.  Both  are  carbonate  of  lime, 
the  same  substance  as  marble.] 

The  tubes  rise  from  above  the  coral  about  one-fourth  or  one- 
third  of  an  inch.  At  the  top  the  tubes  are  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  the  edge  is  uneven,  and  the  sides  of  tubes  are 
marked  with  longitudinal  lines.  Inside  the  tubes  are  six  large 
partitions,  extending  longitudinally  from  the  circumference  to  the 
centre.  Six  shorter  and  thinner  ones,  alternating  with  these  and 
extending  not  quite  to  the  centre,  and  in  some  of  the  tubes  twelve 
very  short  partitions  alternating  with  the  twelve  longer  ones. 

The  tubes  show  the  same  partitions  where  broken  off  at  the 
bottom  of  piece  of  coral  as  at  the  top  of  tubes.  At  the  bottom  the 
tubes  are  smaller  than  at  the  top,  and  they  tend  toward  each  other. 
Occasionally  in  the  bottom  of  piece  the  tubes  are  united. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  223 

From  tlie  rough  and  broken  appearance  of  pieces  we  judge  that 
they  are  parts  broken  from  a  large  mass. 

ANGLE-WORM 

Materials.  —  A  live  angle-worm  for  each  pupil  placed  in  a  white 
plate  which  has  been  rinsed  in  cold  water  and  left  wet.  One  live 
angle-worm  placed  on  a  dish  of  moist  earth.  For  more  minute 
examination,  worms  killed  and  hardened  by  lying  in  alcohol,  one 
for  each  pupil.  A  pot  of  moist  eartli  with  a  small  plant  of  grass 
or  clover  growing  in  it,  and  several  live  angle-worms  for  children 
to  observe  habits. 

Observation  of  Live  Angle-Worm  on  Plate. —  The  angle- 
worm has  no  distinct  head  or  limbs,  is  cylindrical  in  shape, inches 

long, incli  through,  light  reddish  brown  on  the  upper  side, 

paler  on  the  lower  side,  often  iridescent,  and  mai'ked  by  lines 
encircling  it,  which  divide  it  into  many  rings  or  segments. 

Toward  one  end  of  the  body  is  a  thicker  portion  in  which  the 
rings  are  less  distinctly  marked.  [This  thicker  part  is  called  the 
saddle.'}  The  end  of  angle-worm  which  is  nearer  the  saddle  is 
forward  as  the  worm  moves,  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  first 
segment  is  a  hole.  [The  niovxth.  This  forward  end  of  angle-worm 
is  called  the  anterior  end,  and  the  part  of  worm  back  of  saddle  the 
posterior  end.] 

On  the  upper  side  a  dark  line  extends  through  the  middle,  and 
when  the  worm  shortens  itself,  this  line  is  crinkled.  [This  dark 
line  is  the  food-tube,  or  intestine,  seen  through  the  skin  of  worm, 
and  made  dark  by  the  earth  which  the  worm  swallows.  The 
mouth  opens  into  the  food-tube,  and  there  is  a  small  opening  from 
the  food-tube  in  the  last  segment  of  the  body.] 

Lying  above  the  food-tube  is  a  slender  red  line,  which  also  is 
crinkled  when  the  worm  shortens  itself.  \_This  tube  holds  red  blood, 
and  is  called  the  heai-t.'] 

The  worm  stretches  out  both  ends  of  the  body,  and,  on  the  plate, 
does  not  succeed  in  moving  onward  much  in  either  direction. 

Observation  of  Angle-Worm  on  Moist  Earth.  —  The 
worm  makes  anterior  part  of  body  more  i)ointed,  stretches  it  out, 
fastens  it  in  earth,  and  draws  posterior  part  of  body  up  to  position 


224  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

of  anterior  part.  Then  repeats  the  movements  in  the  same  order, 
and  so  moves  along. 

Examination  of  Worm  hardened  in  Alcohol.  —  The 
worm  is  a  light  slate  color,  is  shorter  and  more  stiff  and  tough 
than  the  live  worms,  with  the  segments  much  nearer  together. 
The  three  parts  of  worm,  anterior  part,  saddle,  and  posterior  part, 
can  be  seen  more  plainly- 

On  each  side  of  worm  are  two  parallel  lines  of  little  dots. 
When  the  angle-worm  is  held  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  one 
hand,  and  drawn  through  the  fingers  of  the  other  hand,  these  little 
dots  are  felt  as  points  projecting  from  the  sides  of  angle-worm. 
These  points  are  the  ends  of  tiny  bristles  which  the  angle-worm 
uses  as  hooks  to  fasten  the  forward  pai't  of  his  liody  until  lie  has 
brought  the  back  part  of  body  up  to  the  position  of  the  forward 
part. 

Observation  of  Angle-Worms  living  in  Pot  of  Earth. 
—  As  angle-worms  work  only  in  the  dark,  all  that  can  be  seen  of 
their  habits  is  the  castings  left  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
possibly  some  change  which  the  worms  have  made  in  the  position 
of  pebbles  and  sticks  on  the  surface.  If  children  can  be  induced 
to  keep  angle-worms  at  home,  and  to  watch  them  just  at  dusk,  they 
aiay  succeed  in  seeing  them  come  from  their  burrows,  and,  when 
disturbed,  return  to  them,  closing  the  burrow  with  a  pebble  or 
chip.  They  can  also  jirove  that  angle-worms  perceive  light,  by 
suddenly  bringing  a  light  near  when  they  are  out  of  burrows. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  year,  something  of  the 
growth  and  change  of  insects  should  be  taught.  The 
best  illustration  of  this  change  is  j)ei'haps  the  butterfly. 
To  secure  the  best  results,  several  lessons  should  be 
given  at  different  times  upon  the  various  changes  which 
are  observed.  Show  a  leaf  or  twig  containing  the 
eggs  of  the  insect,  and  encourage  pupils  to  bring  other 
specimens  of  the  same  kind.  The  same  may  be  done 
with  the  young,  just  after  they  have  emerged  from 
the   egg.      The  full-grown  caterpillar  and  the    cocoon 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  225 

can  be  easily  found,  and  will  be  interesting  objects  of 
study.  By  putting  the  cocoon  into  a  box  with  holes 
in  it,  the  growth  of  the  butterfly  may  be  seen  ;  or, 
better  still,  by  putting  the  caterpillar  into  a  glass 
box,  with  some  of  the  leaves  of  the  tree  upon  wliich  it 
was  found.  The  various  stages  of  development  may  be 
observed  until  the  butterfly  is  formed.  The  same  may 
be  done  with  other  insects,  as  the  frog,  fly,  mosquito, 
June-bug,  potato-bug.  Some  practical  lessons  may  be 
taught  in  connection  with  the  food  of  the  maggot,  grub, 
and  caterpillar,  and  the  time  and  place  in  which  injuri- 
ous insects  deposit  their  eggs. 

During  the  seventh  year,  the  pupils  learn  by  observa- 
tion to  group  animals  according  to  resemblances  of 
parts  and  habits.  The  animals  which  have  been  pre- 
viously examined,  and  others,  both  familiar  and  unfamil- 
iar, are  to  be  classified  first  by  pointing  out  the  essential^ 
characteristics  of  fishes,  frogs  and  toads,  reptiles,  birds, 
and  mammals.  So  far  as  possible  this  classification 
should  be  made  by  the  pupils'  own  observation. 

The  varieties  of  birds  and  mammals  may  then  be  dis- 
tinguished, the  class  giving  as  much  time  to  the  exam- 
ination of  specimens  as  time  will  permit.  The  most 
valuable  part  of  this  year's  work,  as  indeed  of  the  work 
of  all  grades,  is  the  observation  of  adaptation  of  struc- 
ture to  use.  Lead  the  pupils  constantly  to  infer  the 
special  use  of  each  part  as  it  is  observed,  and  knowing 
the  habits  of  certain  animals,  to  infer  and  jn-ove  tlie 
necessary  structure  of  the  various  organs  and  parts. 


226  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


MINERALS. 


The  prescribed  course  provides  for  minerals  to  be 
taught  only  during  a  part  of  two  years,  —  the  sixth  and 
eiglith  years  of  the  course.  Not  much  can  be  done  in 
this  time,  but  enough,  it  is  hoped,  to  enable  the  pupils 
to  know  some  common  minerals  by  name  and  to  know 
how  to  distinguish  them. 

It  is  thought  best  in  these  elementary  lessons  to  con- 
fine the  study  to  the  solids  or  rock  forms  and  to  direct 
attention  especially  to  those  rocks  which  are  most  com- 
mon. The  first  two  or  three  lessons  may  be  given  to 
teaching  what  a  mineral  is.  By  comparing  the  mineral 
form  with  the  vegetable  and  animal  forms,  it  will  be 
seen  that  one  is  organized  and  that  the  other  is  unor- 
ganized, and  that  a  fragment  of  the  mineral,  unlike  that 
of  the  animal  or  vegetable,  has  the  same  properties  and 
composition  as  the  whole. 

The  next  step  is  to  teach  the  difference  in  minerals 
in  respect  to,  — 

1.  Natural  form.  4.     Lustre. 

2.  Structure.  5.     Transparency, 

3.  Hardness.  6.     Color. 

Other  distinctions,  as  streak,  refraction,  polarization, 
phosphorescence,  and  those  qualities  which  are  tested  by 
heat  and  chemicals  are  important,  but  may  be  deferred 
to  the  high-school  course. 

To  teach  difference  in  natural  form,  compare,  with 
reference  to  form  of  crystals.  Rock  suit,  quartz,  sul- 
phur, alum,  ice  (snow)  may  be  good  specimens  in 
whicli  the  form  of  crystals  may  be  easily  observed.  If 
it  can  be  done,  the  formation  of  crystals  in  the  fusing 


OHSEKVATION    LESSONS.  227 

and  cooling  of  sulphur  would  be  interesting  and  in- 
structive. A  few  simple  teclniical  names  of  crystal 
forms  may  be  learned;  as,  cubic,  hexagonal,  pyramidal^ 
etc. 

To  teach  structure,  puncture  the  mineral  with  a  knife 
or  some  pointed  instrument  to  see  if  it  has  cleavage  or 
can  be  readily  split  up  into  thin  layers  like  mica,  talc, 
gypsum,  and  slate,  or  into  fibres  like  asbestos,  or  into 
little  cubes  like  galenite. 

No  definite  degree  of  hardness  can  be  taught  in  these 
elementary  lessons.  Test  with  the  point  of  a  knife  or 
of  any  hard  metallic  substance,  the  hardness  of  the 
mineral  and  give  the  names  hard,  medium  hard,  soft. 
Talc,  gypsum,  and  zinc  would  Ije  called  soft ;  quartz, 
feldspar,  and  topaz  would  be  called  hard.  Other 
minerals  could  be  compared  with  these. 

To  teach  lustre,  take  three  minerals,  as  galenite, 
feldspar,  and  jasper,  and  show,  or  rather  have  the  pu- 
pils see  and  say  for  themselves,  that  galenite  is  bright, 
or  has  lustre ;  that  feldspar  is  less  bright,  or  has  less 
lustre ;  and  that  jasper  is  not  bright,  or  has  no  lustre. 
To  give  technical  names  to  the  different  kinds  of  lustre, 
compare  the  lustre  of  various  minerals  with  lead,  glass, 
and  pearl.  If  the  mineral  is  like  lead  in  lustre,  it  has  a 
metallic  lustre ;  if  like  glass,  it  has  a  vitreous  lustre ; 
and  if  like  pearl,  it  has  a  pearly  lustre. 

To  teach  difference  in  minerals  in  respect  to  trans- 
parency, the  mineral  may  be  placed  before  the  eye,  and 
if  objects  can  be  seen  through  it,  it  is  said  to  be  trans- 
parent. If  only  light  can  be  seen  through  the  mineral, 
or  objects  very  dimly,  it  is  said  to  be  translucent.  If 
neither  objects  nor  light  can  be  seen  through  the  min« 
eral,  it  is  said  to  be  opaque. 


228  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

While  these  differences  are  being  observed,  the  pupils 
are  leai'ning  incidentally  the  names  of  the  common  min- 
erals. But  it  is  not  enough  for  them  to  know  the 
names  of  a  few  minerals.  If  it  can  be  done  in  these 
early  lessons,  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  learn  to 
distinguish  minerals  when  they  see  them,  or  at  least  to 
be  able  to  distinguish  a  few. 

For  examj^le,  to  teach  to  distinguish  quartz,  we  should 
if  possible  place  before  each  pupil  a  specimen  of  quartz, 
with  such  other  appliances  as  will  lead  him  to  examine 
it  with  reference  to  the  qualities  already  spoken  of. 
He  will  see,  and  by  being  given  the  terms  can  say,  that 
the  quartz  has  crystals  in  the  form  of  a  hexagonal 
prism  or  shaft,  terminated  by  a  hexagonal  pyramid: 
that  it  has  no  cleavage  ;  that  it  cannot  be  scratched  with 
a  knife,  and  that  it  scratches  glass  easily ;  that  it  has  a 
vitreous  lustre ;  that  it  is  transparent,  translucent,  and 
opaque ;  that  it  is  commonly  colorless  and  white. 

Although  the  chief  object  is  to  lead  the  pupils  to 
observe,  it  would  be  well  to  give  with  the  teaching 
such  information  as  will  be  of  interest  or  value.  For 
example,  when  the  color  of  the  quartz  is  observed,  it 
would  be  well  to  tell  the  pupils  that  when  quartz  crys- 
tals are  purple,  they  are  called  amethyst^  and  that 
quartz  occurs  also  in  uncrystallized  or  massive  forms, 
in  which  case,  when  colored  and  translucent,  it  is  called 
carnelian  and  agate ;  and  when  opaque,  jasper^  opal^ 
iindjlint.  An  inspection  of  specimens  of  these  minerals 
will  greatly  add  to  the  interest  of  the  pupils. 

Knowing  so  much  of  quartz,  it  will  not  be  a  difficult- 
matter  for  the  pupils  to  distinguish  that  mineral  from 
others,  and  it  would  be  well  to  have  some  time  given 


OBSERVATIOX    LESSONS.  229 

to  the  work  of  examining  various  minerals  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Of  course  such  work  is  necessarily  slow.  Two  or 
three  lessons  may  be  profitably  given  to  quartz.  An 
equal  number  of  lessons  may  be  given  to  each  mineral 
named  in  the  following  outline  of  lessons  prepared  by 
Mr.  Chas.  P.  Worcester. 

1.  Galena    (Lead    Ore).  —  (1)    Form  :    cubic.      (2)    Cleavage : 

good,  cubical;  i.e.,  it  divides  and  subdivides  readily  into 
cubes.  (3)  Hardness  :  can  be  scratched  readily  with  a 
knife.  (4)  Lustre:  metallic.  (.5)  Opaque.  (6)  Color:  blue 
gray. 

2.  Pyritk  (Iron   Pyrites).  —  (1)  Form:    usually  cubic.      (2)  No 

cleavage.  (3)  Cannot  be  scratched  with  knife.  (4)  Metallic 
lustre.  (.5)  Opaque.  (6)  Color :  brassy  yellow,  or  yellowish 
white. 

3.  Halite  (Rock  Salt).  —  (1)  The  crystalline  form  of  salt  that 

is  mined  is  cubic.  The  coarse  crystals  sold  as  rock  salt  are 
from  salt  water  by  evaporation,  and  are  of  the  square  hopper- 
shape.  (2)  No  cleavage.  (3)  Can  be  scratched  with  the 
nail.  (4)  Vitreous  lustre.  (5)  Transparent  or  translucent. 
(6)  Colorless :  white  or  stained  brown  or  red.  (7)  Taste : 
salt. 

4.  Fluokite  (Fluor  Spar).  —  (1)  Form:  cubic,  or  modified  cubic ; 

i.e.,  cubic  with  the  edges  bevelled  or  the  corners  cut  off.  (2) 
Some  cleavage,  clipping  the  corners  of  the  crystal.  (3)  Can 
be  scratched  with  the  knife.  (4)  Vitreous  lustre.  (5)  Trans- 
parent or  translucent.  (6)  Color :  white,  bluish,  or  of  vari- 
ous colors. 

5.  CourxDUM  (conmionest  form  is  emery.     Sapphire  and  ruby  are 

rarer  forms  of  this  mineral).  —  (1)  Form  :  sometimes  rhom- 
bic; i.e.,  as  if  originally  a  cube  which  had  been  flattened  out 
by  a  diagonal  pressure  exerted  on  one  edge,  but  more  often 
massive ;  i.e.,  without  crystalline  form.  (2)  No  cleavage. 
(3)  Very  hard ;  quartz  can  be  readily  scratched  by  it.  (4) 
Vitreous  lustre.     (.5)  Opaque.     (6)  Usually  black. 


230  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

6.  Magnetite   (Magnetic  Iron  Ore),  —  (1)  Form:    octohedron 

usually ;  i.e.,  the  crystal  formed  as  if  by  the  union  of  two 
four-sided  pyramids,  base  to  base.  (2)  No  cleavage.  (3) 
Can  with  difficulty  be  scratched  with  knife.  (4)  ^Metallic 
lustre.  (5)  Opaque.  (6)  Color:  black.  (7)  In  a  powder 
it  is  strongly  attracted  by  a  magnet. 

7.  Asbestos.  —  (1)  Form  :  silky,  flexible  threads.    (2)  Cleavage: 

fibrous.  (3)  Lustre :  silky.  (4)  Opaque.  (5)  Grayish 
white. 

8.  Hornblende.  —  (1)    Form  :    usually   rhombic    or   six-sided 

prisms.  (2)  No  cleavage.  (3)  Slightly  softer  than  quartz. 
(4)  Vitreous  lustre.  (5)  Opaque.  (6)  Color :  black  or 
greenish  black.  (7)  Often  a  constituent  of  granite,  syenite, 
and  gneiss  rocks. 

9.  Garnet.  —  (l)Form:  usually  well-defined  dodecahedrons ;  i.e., 

twelve-sided  crystals.  (2)  Cleavage  :  not  good.  (3)  Hard- 
ness :  about  like  quartz.  (4)  Lustre :  vitreous  or  dull  vit- 
reous. (5)  Transparent,  translucent,  or  opaque.  (0)  Color : 
red  or  brown. 

10.  Mica  (conmionest  variety,  Muscovite).  —  (1)  Form :  not 
readily  made  out.  (2)  Cleavage :  perfect,  into  flexible 
leaves  of  indefinite  thinness.  (3)  Can  be  scratched  with 
the  nail.  (4)  Transparent.  (.5)  Vitreous  lustre.  (6) 
Color  :   gray  and  yellow. 

IL  Feldspar  (commonest  variety,  Orthoclase). —  (1)  Form  like 
that  of  a  book  that  is  flattened  out  by  a  diagonal  pressure 
applied  on  one  edge.  (2)  Cleavage  good ;  usually  in  two 
directions  parallel  with  the  crystal  faces.  (3)  Usually  some- 
what softer  than  quartz,  but  with  difficulty  to  be  scratched 
with  a  knife.  (4)  Lustre  :  vitreous  or  pearly.  (5)  Opaque, 
or  rarely  translucent.  (6)  Color :  usually  white,  may  be 
stained  brown  or  red. 
The  main  constituent  of  granite,  syenite,  gneiss,  and  the  most 
important  of  the  common  rocks. 

12.  Tourmaline. —  (1)  Form:  hexagonal  prisms,  usually  of  a 
roughly  triangular  cross-section.  (2)  No  cleavage.  (3)  Hard 
as  quartz.  (4)  Vitreous  lustre.  (5)  Opaque.  (6)  Color: 
brown  black. 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  231 

13.  Talc. — '(1)  Form:  not  easily  made  out ;  often  massive.     (2) 

Cleavage  :  when  crystalline,  good  in  one  direction.  (3)  Very 
soft ;  feeling  very  characteristic,  soft  and  soapy.  (4)  Pearly 
lustre.     (5)  Opaque.     (6)  Color:  gray. 

14.  Serpentine.  —  (1)  Form  :  massive.     (2)  No  cleavage.      (3) 

Can  be  scratched  with  the  knife,  but  not  with  the  nail. 
(4)  Lusti'e :  dull,  waxy.  (5)  Opaque  or  translucent.  (6) 
Color:  dark  green. 

15.  Gypsum.      Varieties:   fibrous  (satin  spar);   massive  (alabas- 

ter); burned  (plaster  of  Pai'is).  —  (1)  Form:  sometimes  in 
single  rhombic  crystals,  but  more  often  in  flat  crystals,  in 
general  shape  like  an  arrow-head.  Such  are  called  twinned 
crystals,  and  are  really  modified  single  crystals  of  the  regular 
form.  Imagine  a  regular  rhombic  crystal  to  be  cut  in  two 
by  a  diagonal  plane,  and  then  one-half  the  crystal  rotated  on 
the  other,  half-way  round,  and  you  have  the  twinned  ci'ystal. 

(2)  Cleavage :  perfect.  (3)  Can  be  scratched  with  the  nail. 
(4)  Lustre:  vitreous,  pearly,  or  dull.  (5)  Transparent, 
transluceiat,  or  opacjue.     (6)  Color:  white  or  brown. 

16.  Calcite.      Varieties  :    transparent   crystals    (Iceland   spar) ; 

massive  (marble,  limestone);  burned  (lime).  —  (1)  Form: 
usually  liexagonal  pyramids  or  rhombohedrons,  with  only 
half  as  many  faces  as  hexagonal  pyramids.  (2)  Cleavage : 
perfect,  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  rhombohedral  crystal. 

(3)  Can  be  readily  scratched  with  the  knife,  but  not  with 
the  nail.  (4)  Lustre :  vitreous.  (5)  Transparent,  trans- 
lucent, or  opaque.     (6)  Color:  white,  or  variously  stained. 

ASTRONOMY. 

In  the  twenty  lessons  assigned  for  this  subject 
comparatively  little  can  be  done.  Not  all  of  the  work, 
either,  can  be  purely  observational,  some  of  the  facts 
being  known  only  by  inference,  or  upon  the  authority 
of  others.  The  first  few  lessons  may  include  subjects 
which  have  already  been  partially  taught  in  connection 


232  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

with  geography.  These  facts  should  be  reviewed,  and 
other  facts  learned  with  as  much  minuteness  as  the 
ability  of  the  pupils  and  time  will  permit.  The  fol- 
lowing outline  of  topics  and  questions  will  indicate  in 
a  general  way  the  subjects  of  study,  and  the  order  and 
methods  of  presenting  them.  The  Roman  numerals 
indicate  the  order  of  lessons.  Some  of  the  observations 
will  have  to  be  made  in  the  evening,  and  results  be 
brought  into  the  class. 

I.-V. 

1.  Form  of  Earth. 

Proofs. —  (a)  Vessel  coming  in  sight,  (ft)  Shadow  of  earth  in 
eclipse,    (c)  Horizon,  a  circle,    {d)  Voyage  ai'ound  the  world. 

2.  Size  of  Earth. 

Diameter.  Circumference.  (Illustrate  by  time  of  railroad 
train.) 

3.  Motions  of  Earth. 

(a)  Rotation.  —  Evidences.  Effects.  (Illustrate  by  ball  in  sun- 
light. Lighted  hemisphere  changing  —  why?  Observe  effects 
with  axis  of  ball  in  various  positions :  1st,  horizontal,  and 
toward  the  sun ;  2d,  upright ;  3d,  oblique.  Illustrate  sun- 
rise, noon,  sunset,  midnight,  in  the  same  way.  Practise  with 
globe,  and  find  relative  times  for  different  places.) 

(ft)  Revolution.  —  Illustrate  with  ball  and  lamp  and  paper  disc. 
Axis  inclined  23.^°  toward  the  north.  Why  does  the  sun  rise 
and  set  at  different  times?  Why  is  the  sun  higher  at  noon 
in  the  summer?  Which  pole  is  in  sunshine  in  June?  In 
December  ?  When  is  sun  directly  over  equator  ?  Effect  in 
length  of  day  in  different  parts  of  the  earth.  Length  of  day 
at  the  equator.  At  the  north  pole.  Change  of  seasons  caused 
by  what?  Show  by  illustration  that  three  conditions  must 
exist.  Place  tropics  —  why  23.]°  north  and  south  of  equator? 
Polar  circles  —  why  23]°  from  poles?  Orbit  of  earth.  Plane 
of  orbit.  Why  does  sun  seem  to  move?  Lead  pijr>iJ«  to  ob- 
serve  difference  in  path  of  sun. 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  283 

VI.,  VII. 

Thk  Sun. 

Comparative  size.    Distance  from  earth.    (Illustrate  by  railroad 

train . ) 
Spots.  —  What   supposed   to   be  ?      Change  of  form   indicates 

what  ? 
Eclipses  of  Sim.  —  IIow  caused?     Kinds.     Illustrate,  and  draw 

conclusions  from  puj^ils. 

VIII.,  IX. 
The  jMoon. 

Light,  caused  how?  Cause  of  phases?  Illustrate.  Distance 
from  the  earth  ?  Position  and  names  of  spots  ?  Spots  indi- 
cate what?  Probable  appearance  from  the  moon  of  our 
earth  ?    Eclipse  explained. 

X.-XII. 
Planets. 

Appearance  and  movements  of  planets   that    are    in    sight  ? 

Names?     Planets  in  sight  at   different   seasons?     Relative 

size  of  each?     Comparative  length  of  year?      Comparative 

length   of   day?     JNIoons   and   rings?     Which   planets    have 

phases  ?  Conjunction  of  planets  ?    Probability  of  habitation  ? 

XIII.-XX. 
Fixed  Stars. 

Appearance,  how  different  from   planets  when   seen   through 

telescope?     Why?     Give  idea  of  distance  by  railway  train. 

Do  they  change  their  relative  position  as  do  the  planets  ? 

Cause  of  difference.      Position   and  names  of  stars  of  first 

magnitude.      Constellations  observed  and  named :    position 

of  stars  noted.      Results  of  observation   brought  into  the 

class. 

PHYSICS. 

In  conducting  lessons  in  Physics  the  teacher  should 
be  careful  to  lead  the  pupils  to  correct  conclusions 
through  their  own  observation.      The    observation   is 


234  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

what  is  actually  seen,  and  should  not  be  confounded 
with  the  experiment  which  precedes  it  nor  with  the 
inference  which  follows.  The  experiments  should  be 
made  by,  or  in  presence  of,  the  pupils,  with  simple 
apparatus.  To  show  the  order  and  character  of  the 
work  which  may  be  done,  and  the  kind  of  apparatus 
used,  the  following  outline  of  topics  for  twenty  lessons 
is  presented.  It  is  taken  largely  from  the  elementary 
course  pursued  in  the  Bridgewater  (Mass.)  State  Nor- 
mal School. 

The  Roman  numerals  indicate  the  lessons,  but  some- 
times not  so  much  can  be  done. 

I.   Mattek,  Body,  Substanck. 

Exp.  1.  Place  a  pencil  upon  the  table.  Put  another  in  the 
same  place  without  moving  the  first.  Obs.  Cannot  do  it.  Inf. 
Pencil  takes  up  room  [occupies  space]. 

Exp.  2.  Fill  a  bottle  with  water.  Put  more  in.  Obs.  Cannot 
do  it.     Inf.  Water  occupies  space. 

Exp.  3.  Close  one  end  of  a  glass  tube.  Press  other  end  into 
the  water.     Obs.  Water  does  not  Jill.     Inf.  Air  occupies  space. 

Call  anything  that  occupies  space  "  matter."  Call  a  limited 
portion  of  matter  a  "  body." 

Exp.  4.  Taste  salt  and  sugar.  Obs.  The  taste  is  different. 
Inf.  They  are  different  kinds  of  matter. 

Exp.  5.  Feel  of  soap  and  stone.  Obs.  They  feel  different. 
Inf.  They  are  diiferent  kinds  of  matter. 

[In  the  same  way  smell  of  coffee  and  of  tea ;  examine  color  of 
leaf  and  bark ;  strike  on  wood  and  glass,  etc.  Bring  out  the  infer- 
ence that  they  are  different  kinds  of  matter.] 

Call  a  kind  of  matter  a  "substance." 

[Much  of  the  time  of  tlie  first  lesson  may  have  to  be  given  to 
leading  the  pupils  to  distinguish  the  difference  between  an  experi- 
ment and  an  observation,  and  to  lead  them  to  make  correct  infer- 
ences. If  care  is  not  taken,  they  will  be  inclined  to  infer  too 
much.] 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  236 

II.   Changes  in  Matter. 

Exp.  1.  Examine  a  match.  Obs.  A  red  end  with  peculiar 
smell,  a  yellow  tip,  white  wood.    Inf.  Made  of  different  substances. 

Exp.  2.  Burn  and  then  examine.  Obs.  Smell  goes  off  with 
the  smoke,  red  and  yellow  disappear,  also  the  white  wood ;  a  soft, 
black  substance  is  left.  Lif.  Change  of  substance.  Call  such  a 
change  in  matter  a  "  chemical  change." 

Exp.  3.     Drop  a  match.     Obs.  Change  of  place. 

Exp.  4.  Examine  the  dropped  match.  Obs.  Looks  the  same 
as  at  first.  Inf.  Xo  change  of  substance.  Call  such  a  change  a 
"  physical  change." 

Exp.  5.  Leave  a  match  on  table.  Obs.  No  change.  Inf. 
Change  must  have  a  cause. 

Call  a  cause  of  change  in  matter  "  force." 

Call  a  cause  of  chemical  change  in  matter  "  chemical  force." 

Call  a  cause  of  physical  change  in  matter  "physical  force." 

Call  the  knowledge  of  physical  force  and  its  effects  "  physics." 

Call  the  knowledge  of  chemical  force  and  its  effects  "chemistry." 

Exp.  6.  Tear  paper  with  fingers.  Obs.  A  change  in  paper. 
Inf.  Foi'ce  exerted  by  fingers  caused  the  change.  Call  this  "  mus- 
cular force." 

Exji.  7.  Take  plaster  of  Paris,  wet  and  pour  out  on  glass  plate. 
Obs.  From  powder  it  soon  becomes  solid.  Inf.  Force  holds  the 
parts  together.     Call  this  force  "  cohesion." 

Call  any  force  that  draws  or  holds  bodies  together  an  "  attrac- 
tive force." 

Ex}).  8.  ^lark  with  lead-pencil  on  paper.  Obs.  Particles  of 
lead  stick  to  the  paper.  Lead  and  paper  ai-e  unlike.  Inf.  Force 
holds  the  unlike  parts  together.  It  is  an  attractive  force.  Call 
this  foi'ce  "adhesion." 

Exp.  9.  Drop  a  pencil.  Obs.  The  pencil  moves  downward  to 
the  floor.  Inf.  Force  causes  it  to  fall.  It  is  an  attractive  force. 
Call  this  force  "  gravity." 

III.     Ctiaxoes  IX  Matter. 

Exp.  1.  Hold  a  piece  of  sealing-wax  near  the  flame  of  a  match. 
Obs.  Wax  softens  and  melts.  Inf.  Force  caused  this  change. 
Call  this  force  "  heat." 


236  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Exp.  2.  Prepare  two  pieces  of  paper  with  nitrate  of  silver. 
Keep  one  in  the  dark.     Obs.  No  change  of  paper  in  the  dark. 

Exp.  3.  Cover  part  of  other  with  card,  and  expose  to  light. 
Obs.  The  part  exposed  to  the  light  turns  dark.  Inf.  Foi'ce  caused 
this  change.     Call  this  force  "  light." 

Exp.  4.  Burn  a  match.  Obs.  Wood  changed  to  different  sub- 
stance. Inf.  Force  caused  this  change.  Call  this  force  "  chemical 
affinity." 

Exp.  5.  Put  a  knife-blade  on  magnet.  Touch  it  to  some  iron 
tacks.  Obs.  Tacks  are  drawn  to  knife.  Inf.  Force  caused  this 
motion.     It  is  an  attractive  force.     Call  this  force  "  magnetism." 

Exp.  0.  Rub  a  stick  of  sealing-wax  with  a  piece  of  dry  flannel, 
and  bring  wax  near  bits  of  paper.  Obs.  The  bits  of  paper  are 
drawn  to  the  wax.  Inf.  Force  caused  this  motion.  It  is  an 
attractive  force.     Call  this  force  "  electricity.'" 

Exp.  7.  Touch  a  metal  button  to  cheek.  Obs.  Button  feels 
cold. 

Exp.  8.  Rub  button  briskly  on  sleeve,  and  then  touch  to  cheek. 
Obs.  Button  feels  warm  after  laibbing.  Inf.  By  using  muscular 
force  "heat"  is  produced. 

Exp.  9.  Rub  sealing-wax  with  dry  flannel,  and  bring  near  bits 
of  paper.  Obs.  Paper  is  drawn  to  wax.  Inf.  By  using  muscular 
force  "  electricity  "  is  produced. 

Exp.  10.  Burn  match,  and  while  burning  look  at  it;  hold  a 
hand  near  it.  Obs.  Flame  is  bright;  hand  is  warmed.  Inf.  By 
using  chemical  affinity  "  heat "  and  "  light  "  ai'e  produced. 

Exp.  11.  Bring  a  match  near  the  flame  of  a  burning  match. 
Obs.  Match  kindles  and  burns.  Inf.  By  using  heat  "chemical 
afl[inity"  is  formed. 

These  forces  are  so  related  to  each  other,  that  by  using  one 
we  may  get  some  of  the  others. 

IV.     States  of  Matter  and  Qualities  of  Bodies. 

Exp.  1.  Place  a  pebble  on  the  table.  Press  it  with  the  finger. 
Obs.  No  change.  Inf.  Body  tends  to  keep  its  form ;  parts  held 
together  firmly.     Call  such  a  body  a  "  solid." 

Ex}).  2.    Place  drop  of  water  on  the  table,  and  press  it  with  the 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  237 

finger.  Obs.  Water  spreads  out,  and  the  parts  move  away  from 
one  another.  Inf.  The  parts  are  held  together  loosely  and  move 
freely  among  themselves.  Can  change  its  form  easily.  Call  such 
a  body  a  "  liquid." 

Exp.  3.  Boil  a  little  water  in  a  test-tube  over  a  candle-flame. 
Obs.  Steam  rises  and  disappears  in  the  air.  Inf.  Parts  are  not 
held  together,  and  tend  to  separate  without  pressure.  Call  such  a 
body  a  "  gas." 

Call  liquids  and  gases  "fluids." 

Exp.  4.  Pass  the  finger  along  edges  of  a  book.  Obs.  The  finger 
can  move  up  or  down,  right  or  left,  forward  or  backward.  Inf. 
Body  extends  in  three  directions.  Say  that  the  book  has  "  exten- 
sion." 

Exp.  .5.  Repeat  Exp.  4.  Obs.  The  finger  can  move  only  a 
certain  distance  in  each  direction.  Inf.  The  extension  is  limited. 
This  gives  the  book  "form"  or  "shape." 

Exp.  6.  Close  the  fingers  of  one  hand  around  one  finger  of  the 
other  hand.  Take  out  finger,  leaving  an  opening.  Put  other  hand 
in.  Obs.  Cannot  do  it.  Inf.  Hand  occupies  more  space  than  the 
finger.  Call  the  amount  of  space  occupied  by  a  body  its  "  size  " 
or  "volume." 

Exp.  7.  Put  book  on  table ;  put  another  in  same  place  without 
moving  the  first.  Obs.  Cannot  do  it.  Inf.  The  two  books  cannot 
occupy  the  same  space  at  the  same  time.  Say  that  the  book  has 
"  impenetrability." 

Exp.  8.  Put  book  on  table ;  push  it.  Obs.  The  body  moves. 
Inf.  A  body  can  be  moved.     Say  that  the  book  has  "  mobility." 

V.    Qualities  of  Bodies. 

Exp.  1.  Put  book  on  table ;  do  not  touch  it.  Obs.  The  book 
does  not  move.  Inf.  The  book  cannot  move  itself.  Say  that  the 
book  has  "  inertia." 

Exp.  2.  Hold  book  in  the  hand.  Obs.  Hand  is  pressed  down- 
ward. Inf.  Book  presses  hand  downward.  Call  this  pressure 
"  weight." 

Exp.  3.  Tear  a  piece  of  paper ;  tear  each  piece.  Obs.  The  piece 
is  divided  into  parts ;    each  piece  is  divided  into  parts.     Inf.  The 


238  METHODS   OP   TEACHING. 

body  can  be  divided  indefinitely.  Say  that  the  body  has  "divisi- 
bility." 

Exp.  4.  Look  at  a  bit  of  sponge.  Obs.  There  are  open  spaces 
in  sponge.     Call  these  "pores." 

Exp.  5.  Put  a  drop  of  water  on  table ;  dip  into  it  a  bit  of  blot- 
ting-paper. Obs.  The  water  disappears  in  the  paper.  Inf.  There 
are  open  spaces  or  pores  in  the  paper.  Say  that  these  bodies  are 
"  porous,"  and  have  "  porosity." 

Exp.  6.  Fit  a  cork  into  a  test-tube  or  a  bottle ;  through  this 
cork  pass  tightly  a  glass  tube ;  fill  bottle  and  part  of  tube  with 
water ;  tie  string  around  tube  at  surface  of  water ;  set  bottle  in 
dish  of  hot  water,  or  wrap  around  it  a  cloth  wet  in  hot  water. 
Obs.  The  water  rises  in  the  tube.  Inf.  The  parts  have  separated 
from  each  other.  Say  that  the  body  has  "expansibility."  [By  ex- 
pei'iments  with  a  soft  cork  infer  that  the  body  regains  its  form  by 
its  own  effort.   Say  that  the  body  is  "  elastic,"  and  has  "  elasticity."] 

VI.    Effects  of  Force. 

Exp.  1.  Place  a  marble  on  table ;  strike  it  with  finger.  Obs. 
Force  exerted ;    marble  moves.     Inf.  The  force  caused  the  motion. 

Exp.  2.  Rest  the  book  on  the  hand,  just  above  the  table ;  take 
away  the  hand.  Obs.  Downward  pressure  on  the  hand;  the  book 
falls.  Inf.  The  force  which  caused  the  book  to  fall  caused  the 
pressure. 

Exp.  3.  Place  book  on  floor;  lift  it  to  the  table.  Obs.  Force 
exerted;  work  done.  Inf.  The  force  does  work;  force  causes 
"  motion  "  and  "  pressure,"  and  "  does  work." 

Exp.  4.  Put  marble  on  table ;  strike  it  with  finger  just  hard 
enough  to  move.     Obs.  Marble  moves. 

Exp.  5.  Put  book  on  table  and  strike  it  with  same  force.  Obs. 
Book  does  not  move.     Inf.  Something  prevents  motion. 

ICxp.  G.  Place  smooth  paper  on  sleeve ;  move  finger  along  paper 
and  then  along  sleeve.  Obs.  Motion  is  lessened  when  sleeve  is 
reached.  Inf.  Something  lessens  motion.  Call  anything  that  pre- 
vents or  lessens  motion  a  "  resistance." 

Exp.  7.  Hold  a  marble  in  one  hand  and  a  bullet  in  the  other. 
Obs.  Bullet  is  heavier  than  the  marble. 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  239 

Exp.  8.  Place  each  on  the  table.  Obs.  Neither  moves.  Inf. 
Both  have  inertia. 

Exp.  9.  Strike  marble  vfith  little  force ;  strike  bullet  with  more 
force.  Obs.  Marble  does  not  move ;  ballet  does  not  move.  Inf. 
Inertia  is  a  "  resistance." 

Exp.  10.  Strike  marble  with  just  force  enough  to  move  it; 
strike  bullet  with  same  force.  Obs.  Marble  moves;  bullet  does 
not  move.  Inf.  Heavier  body  offers  more  resistance  —  has  more 
inertia. 

Exp.  11.  Place  book  on  table  and  apply  force  enough  to  move  it. 
Obs.  Book  moves.     Inf.  Book  has  inertia ;  inertia  overcome. 

Exp.  12.  Put  another  similar  book  on  first,  and  apply  the  same 
force.  Obs.  No  motion.  Inf.  Two  books  have  more  inertia  than 
one.  The  more  matter,  the  more  inertia.  [In  the  same  manner, 
by  experiments  with  paper,  rough  and  smooth,  a  stick  and  a  marble, 
lead  the  pupils  to  infer  that,  (1)  air  offers  resistance;  (2)  surface 
of  paper  offers  resistance  (friction)  ;  (3)  pressure  increases  the 
friction ;  (4)  cohesion  offers  resistance ;  (.5)  body  tends  to  keep 
moving  (inertia)  ;  (6)  force  has  "  direction  "  and  "  intensity."] 

VII.    riioi'EKTiEs  OF  Motion. 

[Apparatus  needed :  inarhle,  pencil,  shingle,  hullet,  filbert,  brick.'] 
Teach  following  properties  of  Motion  :  Direction,  Velocity,  Mo- 
mentum, Energy. 

The  various  inferences  from  experiments  observed  will  be,  (1) 
The  motion  has  direction.  The  motion  is  the  same  as  the  direc- 
tion of  the  force  which  produced  the  motion.  (2)  The  greater 
distance  was  passed  in  the  same  time  because  more  force  was  applied. 
(Call  the  distance  passed  in  a  given  time  "speed"  or  "velocity.") 
(.3)  The  marble  in  motion  exerted  foi'ce.  It  got  this  force  from 
the  hand.  (Call  the  force  of  a  body  in  motion  "momentum.")  (4) 
Inertia  of  shingle  greater  than  momentum  of  marble.  (5)  Momen- 
tum of  bullet  more  than  momentum  of  marble.  The  heavy  body 
has  more  momentum  than  a  light  one  moving  at  the  same  rate. 
(6)  Inertia  of  book  greater  than  momentum  of  marble.  (7)  The 
body  has  more  momentum  because  its  velocity  is  greater.  The 
momentuTn  depends  upon  the  force  used.  (8)  The  motion  of  the 
brick  enabled  it  to  do  work.    (Call  the  power  to  do  work  "energy.") 


240  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

VIII.    Effect  of  Several  Forces  acting  together. 

(1)  In  same  direction.  (2)  In  opposite  direction.  (3)  At  an 
angle.     (4)  Parallel.     (.3)  Unlike.     (6)  Equilibrium. 

Exp.  1.  Suspend  a  pulley,  and  over  it  pass  a  cord;  to  one  end 
attach  a  two-ounce  weight ;  attach  a  two-ounce  weight  to  other  end. 
Obs.  The  first  weight  is  held  up. 

Exp.  2.     Take  off  second  weight.     Obs.  The  first  weight  falls. 

Exp.  .3.  Raise  second  weight  a  little  with  the  hand.  Obs.  The 
first  weight  moves  downward.  Inf.  The  second  weight  holds  up 
the  first  weight. 

Exp.  4.  In  place  of  second  weight  attach  two  one-ounce  weights. 
Obs.  The  first  weight  is  held  up. 

Exp.  5.  Raise  small  weights  with  hand.  Obs.  The  first  weight 
moves  downward.  Inf.  Two  one-ounce  weights  do  same  work  as 
two-ounce  weight  in  same  direction.  Each  force  does  same  work  as 
when  acting  alone. 

[In  the  same  way  show  that  a  three-ounce  weight  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  a  one-ounce  weight  in  an  opposite  direction,  do  the  same 
work  as  a  two-ounce  weight  in  the  direction  of  the  three-ounce 
weight.  Each  force  (in  opposite  direction)  does  same  work  as 
when  acting  alone.] 

Exp.  G.  Place  a  marble  on  the  table ;  snap  it  directly  to 
the  right,  then  directly  forward,  and  observe  the  motion  in  each 
case. 

Exp.  7.  Snap  it  in  both  directions  at  same  time.  Obs.  The 
marble  moves  in  a  direction  between  two  former  motions ;  it  moves 
in  a  straight  line.  Inf.  Each  force  does  the  same  work  as  when 
acting  alone. 

J^xp.  8.  Take  a  piece  of  lath  one  foot  long,  make  a  hole  in  the 
middle,  and  suspend  by  a  string ;  make  similar  holes  one  inch 
apart  on  each  side,  first  hole  one  inch  from  the  middle;  make 
hooks  by  bending  pins,  and  suspeiul  from  each  of  the  holes.  Mark 
off  with  a  ruler  a  piece  of  sheet-lead  one  inch  square,  and  cut 
several  of  them;  make  a  hole  in  one  corner  of  each,  and  put  in  a 
thread  to  suspend  it  by.  With  this  piece  of  apparatus  show,  (1) 
Equal  weights  at  equal  distance  from  middle  do  same  work. 
(2)  By  doubling  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  middle,  we  make 


OBSERVATION    LESSONS.  241 

it  do  doulilp  the  work.  (-'J)  By  doubling  the  weight  at  the  same 
distance,  the  work  done  is  doubled.  (4)  By  doubling  both  weight 
and  distance,  four  times  the  work  is  done. 

IX.    Cohesion  and  Adhksion. 

Exp.  1.  Press  two  bullets  together.  Obs.  They  come  apart 
easily.     Inf.  Cohesion  does  not  act. 

Exp.  2.  Scrape  one  side  of  each  bullet;  press  together,  and 
jiidl  apart.  Obs.  They  do  not  come  apart  easily.  Inf.  Cohesion 
holds  them  together. 

Exp.  3.  In  a  tumbler  of  hot  water  slowly  put  powdered  alum  ; 
continue  till  alum  begins  to  fall  to  bottom  of  tumbler.  Obs.  Alum 
disappears  in  the  water. 

Exp.  4.  Take  a  twig  from  some  plant,  clean,  and  hang  in  the 
water;  let  the  water  cool  quietly.  Obs.  The  particles  of  alum 
have  been  brought  together  again  ;  the  body  has  a  definite  form. 
Inf.  Cohesion  has  acted;  cohesion  has  arranged  the  particles  in  a 
definite  way. 

[In  the  same  way  teach  the  following  effects  of  Cohesion  :  Hard- 
ness, Tenaciti/,  E/asticiti/,  F/cxihllil//,  Ductility,  Mal/eahility,  Brittle- 
ness.  Also  lessons  on  Adhesion,  showing  that  solids  adhere  to 
solids,  that  solids  and  liquids  adhere,  and  that  solids  and  gases 
adhere. 

X.,  XI.     Gravity. 

Direction,  Supporlin//  Forces, 'Centre  of  Gravity,  Stability. 

To  teach  Direction,  give  the  following  experiments,  liaving  pupils 
observe  and  infer  as  before.  —  Exp.  1.  Take  one  end  of  a  string 
in  each  hand;  hold  left  hand  still,  moving  right  hand  toward  the 
right ;  stretch  the  string ;  do  the  same  upward ;  do  the  same  down- 
ward. 

Ex}).  '2.  Tie  a  stone  to  one  end  of  a  string,  and  hold  other  end 
in  hand. 

Exp.  ;5.  Draw  circle  upon  paper,  and  from  two  points  outside 
draw  lines  straight  toward  the  circumference;  extend  these  lines 
into  the  circle. 

To  teach  Supporting  Forces.  —  Exp.  1.  Place  on  table  a  soft 
lump  of  salt :  on  this  place  a  heavy  book. 


242  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Exp.  2.  Place  the  same  book  on  a  small  stone.  (Cohesion 
overcomes  gravity.) 

Exp.  3.  Moisten  finger,  tonch  to  bit  of  paper,  and  raise  finger. 
(Adhesion  overcomes  gravity.) 

Exp.  4.  Bring  steel  pen  near  a  knife-blade,  and  remove  the 
hand. 

Exp.  .5.     Rub  knife-blade  on  magnet,  and  repeat  No.  4. 

Exp.  G.  Bring  bits  of  paper  near  a  stick  of  sealing-wax,  and 
remove  the  hand. 

Exp.  7.     Rub  wax  on  sleeve,  and  then  repeat  No.  0. 

To  teach  Centre  of  Gravity.  —  Exp.  1.     Place  book  on  table. 

Exp.  2.     Balance  a  pencil  horizontally  on  finger. 

Exp.  3.  Cut  pasteboard  in  form  of  a  triangle ;  make  a  hole  near 
each  end ;  tie  in  a  string  to  hold  it  by ;  make  a  plumb-line,  and 
suspend  string  and  plumb-line  from  the  same  finger ;  mark  on  the 
pasteboard  the  direction  of  the  plumb-line. 

Exp.  4.     Suspend  from  each  corner,  and  repeat  No.  3. 

Exp.  5.  Rest  the  pasteboard  on  the  point  of  a  pin  at  the  point 
of  intersection  of  the  lines. 

Exp.  6.  Make  a  pin-hole  at  this  point,  put  pin  through,  and 
turn  body  into  different  positions. 

Exp.  7.  Suspending  pasteboard  by  a  string,  draw  body  to 
one  side. 

To  teach  Stability .  —  Exp.  1.  Rest  a  small  piece  of  board  on 
end;  overturn  it  by  turning  it  gn  one  corner ;  observe  force  used, 
and  motion  of  centre  of  gravity. 

Exp.  2.     Overturn  by  turning  on  edge;  observe  as  liefore. 

Exp.  3.     Balance  pencil  on  point  of  finger. 

Exp.  4.     Move  it  in  either  direction. 

Exp.  5.     Suspend  a  plumb-line  from  hand. 

Exp.  G.     IVIove  body  either  way,  then  free. 

Exp.  7.     Roll  a  marble  on  table. 

XIT.,  XIII.     Weight. 

In  this  lesson  explain  principle  of  Balance  and  Steelyard  by 
simple  experiments. 

Take  same  stick  as  in  study  of  parallel  forces ;  cut  two  pieces 


OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  243 

of  sheet-lead  exactly  two  inches  square ;  hollow  in  middle  to  make 
little  pans ;  make  a  liole  in  each  corner  of  each,  and  by  threads 
from  corners  suspend  from  hooks  on  each  end  of  stick.  Call  this  a 
Balance.  Suspend  by  middle  string;  in  one  pan  put  one  lead 
weight,  in  other  pan  put  some  sand. 

Take  a  piece  of  lath  and  make  a  balance  with  unequal  arms, 
like  a  steelyard ;  from  longer  arm  hang  a  stone,  and  call  it  P. 
Hang  one  weight  on  hook  on  short  arm ;  move  stone  till  they  bal- 
ance. Mark  place  1 ;  put  2,  3,  4,  5  weights,  and  mark  place  where 
P  balances.  Hang  piece  of  wood  from  hook,  and  move  P  till  they 
balance.     (Each  pupil  should  construct  his  own  balance.) 

XIV.    Pendulum. 

Suspend  a  bullet  by  a  fine  thread  from  a  fixed  support. 

Exp.  1.     Draw  it  to  one  side  ;  free  it. 

Exp.  2.  Draw  it  a  little  to  one  side,  and  free.  Count  oscilla- 
tions for  fifteen  seconds. 

Exp.  3.     Repeat,  only  drawing  farther. 

Exp.  4.  Make  string  six  inches  long.  Oscillate,  and  count  as 
before. 

Exp.  .5.     Make  string  twelve  inches  long.     Repeat. 

XV.    Effect  of  Gkavitv  on  Liquids. 

By  experiments  show  that,  (1)  Gravity  causes  water  to  fall.  (2) 
Falling  water  has  momentum.  (3)  Gravity  causes  water  to  run 
down  hill.     (4)  Running  water  has  momentum. 

To  teach  the  effect  of  gravity  on  liquids  supported,  give  tlie  fol- 
lowing experiments  :  — 

Exp.  1.  Tie  a  piece  of  thin  rubber  on  one  end  of  an  Argand 
lamp-chimney;  fill  chimney  with  water. 

Exp.  2.  Fit  a  cork  tightly  into  other  end  of  chimney;  through 
a  hole  in  cork  pass  a  glass  tube  with  a  bend  near  one  end ;  hold 
chimney  horizontally,  and  partially  fill  tube  with  water. 

Exp.  3.     Fill  tube  wholly. 

Exp.  4.  Cut  a  piece  of  lead  a  little  larger  than  lamjvchimney ; 
suspend  by  a  string  through  a  hole  in  the  middle  ;  insert  chimney 


244  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

in  a  jar  of  water,  and  hold  lead  close  to  the  bottom  by  the  string 
through  the  chimney ;  release  the  lead. 

Exp.  5.     Release  the  lead  near  the  surface. 

Exp.  6.  Close  one  end  of  a  tube  with  finger,  and  press  open 
end  into  a  jar  of  water. 

Exp.  7.    Remove  the  finger. 

[The  facts  to  be  shown  by  these  experiments  are,  that  water 
presses  downward  and  laterally ;  that  pressure  depends  upon  depth 
of  water ;  that  within  the  water  there  is  upward  pressure ;  and 
that  upward  pressure  at  the  bottom  of  tube  is  due  to  the  down- 
ward pressure  of  the  water  around  it.  Prove  also  that  water  tends 
to  have  the  same  level,  and  that  pressure  is  transmitted  through 
the  water  downward,  laterally,  and  upward.] 

XVI.     Loss  OF  Weight.     Floating  Bodies. 

By  familiar  experiments  show  that  a  body  immersed  in  water 
weighs  less  than  out  of  it ;  that  upward  pressure  of  water  supports 
a  part  of  the  weight ;  that  the  body  displaces  its  own  volume  of 
water ;  that  loss  of  weight  equals  weight  of  water  displaced.  Also 
show  that  lead  is  heavier  than  equal  volume  of  water;  that  a  body 
sinks  because  it  is  heavier  than  an  equal  volume  of  water ;  that  a 
body  floats  because  it  is  lighter  than  an  equal  volume  of  water ; 
and  that  heavier  liquids  hold  up  the  lighter. 

XVII.     Pressure  axd  Elasticity  of  Atmosphere. 
Barometer. 

With  an  Argand  chimney,  covered  at  one  end  with  rubber,  show 
that  atmosphere  presses  the  rubber  downward,  upward,  and  later- 
ally. Also,  by  pressing  open  end  of  chimney  into  water,  show 
that  air  in  the  tube  is  compressed ;  that  the  compressed  air  is 
elastic. 

To  illustrate  principle  of  barometer :  — 

Exp.  1.  Take  an  empty  horse-radish  bottle,  having  a  tight-fitting 
cork,  and  partly  fill  with  water.  In  the  cork  make  two  holes  for 
two  glass  tubes.  Through  one  put  a  bent  glass  tube.  Close  one 
end  of  a  long  straight  tube  with  a  cork,  fill  with  water,  insert,  and 
pass  through  other  hole  so  that  the  open  end  shall  be  below  the 


INFOK.MATIUN    LESSONS.  245 

level  of  the  water.  Obs.  The  water  stays  iu  the  tube  above  the 
level  of  the  water  in  tlie  bottle.  Inf.  The  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere on  surface  of  the  water  in  bottle  holds  up  the  water  in  the 
tube. 

Exp.  2.  Through  tube  draw  air  from  bottle.  Obs.  Water  falls 
in  the  tube. 

Exp.  3.  Admit  air  again.  Obs.  Water  rises  in  the  tube.  Inf. 
The  height  of  water  in  the  tube  varies  with  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere. 

XVIII.-XX. 

The  time  of  these  three  lessons  may  be  well  spent  m  making 
siphon,  common  lifting-pump,  and  forcing-pump.  With  lanip- 
chinuiey,  corks,  leather,  and  small  pieces  of  wood,  the  pupils  can  by 
degrees  construct  the  pump,  and  explain  all  the  principles  involved. 

INFORMATION   LESSONS. 

In  addition  to  the  information  given  in  connection 
with  the  regular  lessons,  there  should  be  taken  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  dail}^  for  what  may  be  called  an  informa- 
tion lesson,  in  which  facts  of  a  general  character  are 
given. 

PRIMARY   GRADES. 

In  the  primary  grades  the  information  should  be 
of  a  very  simple  character,  the  aim  being  to  lead  the 
children  to  think  and  inquire  about  common  things 
around  them.  Frequently  the  subjects  talked  about 
may  be  suggested  by  the  observation  lessons.  Interest- 
ing facts  which  cannot  be  gathered  by  the  child's  ob- 
servation may  be  told ;  as  for  example,  the  description 
of  wild  animals  or  the  kind  of  life  half-civilized  and 
savage  people  lead,  or  the  kind  of  plants  which  grow 
in    tropical  regions.     Sometimes  the  information    may 


246  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

be  given  in  answer  to  questions.  Two  or  three  ques- 
tions may  be  written  on  tlie  blackboard,  to  be  answered 
the  following  day.  What  the  children  cannot  answer 
should  be  supplied  by  the  teacher. 

The  following  questions  may  be  of  some  assistance 
to  teachers  of  primary  and  ungraded  schools:  — 

What  is  flour  made  of  ? 
Why  do  we  plant  trees  ? 

Where  does  the  rain  come  from,  and  where  does  it  go  to  ? 
Of  what  are  baskets  made?    Boxes?     Bags? 
When  the  tin  wears  off,  what  is  left? 
What  is  a  grocery  ?     A  dry-goods  store  ? 
What  would  you  probably  see  in  a  farm-yard  ? 
Name  some  articles  made  of  iron.     Of  wood.     Of  tin. 
Why  do  people  gather  hay  in  summer  ?    Why  do  they  dry  it? 
Why  should  we  be  kind  to  animals  ? 
Tell  me  all  you  know  about  hay.     Corn.     Flour. 
Of  what  use  is  a  thermometer  ?     A  weather-vane  ? 
Tell  me  something  the  horse  can  do.     The  dog.     The  cat. 
What  animal  does  mutton  come  from  ?    Veal  ?    Beef  ?    Pork  ? 
What  becomes  of  snow  when  it  melts  ? 
Should  we  stare  at  strangers  ?     Why  not  ? 

Tell  me  the  names  of  the  different  kinds  of  birds  you  liave  seen. 
Why  do  we  not  see  the  stars  in  the  daytime  ? 
Where  and  how  is  coal  obtained?  Wood?  Oil?  Clieese?   Paper? 
Where  does  tea  come  from?    Sugar?    Rice?    Kaisins? 
AVhat  do  people  use  for  fuel  ?     For  light  ? 
Name  the  different  modes  of  travelling. 
Where  do  the  different  kinds  of  fruit  we  eat  grow  ? 
What  would  you  find  at  the  seashore  ? 

How  are  ships  useful  to  us?     IIow  large  are  they?    Of  what  are 
they  made  ? 

Of  what  is  each  article  of  our  dress  made? 
Name  the  country,  State,  county,  and  town  in  which  you  live? 
Who  is  President  of  the  United  States  ?   (iovernor  of  this  State? 
What  is  it  to  be  useful  ?    Selfish  ?    Benevolent  ? 


INFOKMATION    LESSONS.  247 

What  is  meant  by  a  flock  ?    A  drove  'i    A  swarm  ? 

Mention  a  polite  act.     Some  rude  acts.     Some  kind  acts. 

What  plays  do  you  like  best?    What  books? 

Of  the  objects  you  have  seen  to-day,  which  are  natural  and 
which  are  artificial  ? 

Tell  the  seasons  of  the  year,  and  some  pleasant  things  of  each. 

Name  the  days  of  the  week.     The  months  of  the  year. 

If  everything  you  can  see  were  taken  out  of  the  schoolroom,  of 
what  would  it  still  be  full  ? 

If  the  sun  does  not  shine  in  the  room  till  afternoon,  which  way 
does  the  room  face  ? 

Why  are  the  22d  of  February,  the  17th  of  June,  and  the  4th  of 
July,  holidays? 

What  do  we  call  the  young  of  the  goat  ?  Of  the  horse?  Of  the 
cow  ?    Of  the  cat  ? 

From  what  are  bricks  made  ?     How  ? 

Of  what  is  bread  made  ? 

Where  do  potatoes  grow?   Apples?   Strawberries?    Blueberries? 

Where  does  the  moon  get  its  light? 

Why  do  we  not  see  the  moon  in  the  daytime  ? 

Who  is  meant  by  grandfather?  Grand-daughter?  Uncle?  Aunt? 
Cousin?   Nephew?   Niece? 

How  long  does  it  take  the  minute-hand  of  a  clock  to  go  round 
once? 

How  many  things  does  it  take  to  make  a  dozen  ?     A  score? 

Of  what  are  buttons  made?  Glass?  Cotton  cloth?  Woollen 
cloth?     Linen  cloth?     Leather? 

GRAMMAR   GRADES. 

General  information  for  older  pupils  should  take  a 
wide  range,  including  subjects  which  may  be  classed 
under  the  following  heads :  — 

1.  News  of  the  day  or  week.  2.  Civil  government.  3.  Ani- 
mals, Plants,  ^linerals.     4.    Morals  and  Manners. 

The  amount  of  time  to  be  given  to  each  of  these 
subjects  cannot  be  definitely  prescribed,  it  being  well 
in  such  a  matter  to  be  guided  by  circumstances. 


248  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

At  the  time  of  the  town,  city,  or  State  election, 
considerable  attention  to  civil  government  should  be 
given ;  and  when  interesting  or  important  events 
are  transpiring,  it  would  be  advisable  to  spend  more 
time  upon  the  newspaper  exercise.  Sometimes  the 
observation  lessons  may  excite  such  an  interest  in  nat- 
ural history  as  to  make  it  desirable  to  give  two  or  three 
general  exercises  a  week  upon  information  connected 
with  animals,  plants,  and  minerals.  Generally,  how- 
ever, it  will  be  well  to  be  guided  by  the  rule  of  having 
two  lessons  a  week  in  News,  one  in  Civil  Government, 
one  in  Natural  History,  and  one  in  Morals  and  Manners. 

Newspaper.  —  An  excellent  opportunity  is  afforded 
to  study  geography,  history,  and  all  the  political  and 
social  questions  of  the  day,  by  means  of  the  daily  or 
weekly  newspaper.  There  is  a  variety  of  ways  in  which 
this  exercise  may  be  conducted.  Three  or  four  pupils 
may  be  appointed  to  give  at  each  lesson  an  abstract  of 
the  news,  with  such  explanations  and  comments  as  they 
can  give.  Or  volunteers  may  be  called  for  from  the 
entire  school  to  give  some  item  of  news.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  news  selected  or  related  be  of  an 
important  or  useful  character.  Merely  exciting  and 
unimportant  events  should  be  passed  by,  one  object  of 
the  exercise  being  to  interest  the  pupils  in  that  part  of 
the  newspaper  which  is  of  most  importance  to  them,  and 
to  lead  them  into  good  habits  of  reading  the  newspaper. 

Sometimes  it  may  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  give  the 
items  of  news,  asking  one  and  another  of  the  pupils  to 
locate  certain  places  spoken  of,  and  to  tell  what  they 
can  in  exi)lanation  of  the  events  related.  For  example, 
certain  acts  of  Parliament  or  of  Congress  may  be  spoken 


INFOKJMATION  LESSONS.  249 

of,  such  as  home-rule  or  the  tariff.  The  pupils  could 
be  asked  what  legislation  had  been  attempted  before, 
and  what  would  be  the  i)ossible  effect  of  the  present 
law.  Events  in  Russia  or  Greece  might  suggest  ques- 
tions of  boundary,  government,  religion,  and  labor  or 
other  social  questions.  Atlases  and  maps  should  be 
consulted  by  the  pupils  to  ascertain  the  location  of 
places  unknown  to  them. 

The  following  topics  may  be  suggestive:  — 
Acts  of  Congress,  Parliament,  and  other  legislative  bodies.     Ex- 
isting wars  :  progress  and  cause.     Expeditions  and  their  purpose. 
Market  reports.     Shipping  news  :  arrivals  and  departures  ;  exports 
and  imports.     Important  court  decisions.     Results  of  elections. 

Civil  Government.  —  For  the  purpose  of  giving 
pupils  a  better  idea  of  government,  and  of  instilling 
into  their  minds  high  ideas  of  the  duties  of  citizenship, 
regular  instruction  should  be  given  in  the  grammar 
grades  upon  the  following  topics :  — 

Duties,  manner  of  election,  and  time  of  service,  of  Selectmen, 
Assessors,  School  Committee,  Town  or  City  Treasurer,  Collector, 
Aldermen,  Mayor,  County  Commissioner,  Sheriff,  Register  of  Deeds, 
Judges,  Members  of  State  Legislature,  Governor,  Secretary  of 
State,  Attorney-General,  State  Ti-easurer,  Members  of  Congress, 
President,  Members  of  Cabinet. 

Names  of  officers  elected  at  the  last  National,  State,  and  town 
elections. 

Necessity  and  use  of  government  and  law. 

Duties  of  citizens  in  respect  to  the  laws. 

Advantages  of  co-operation  and  arbitration. 

Laws  in  relation  to  schools,  to  property,  highways,  etc. 

The  civil  service.     Foreign  service. 

Existing  political  parties.     Principles  of  each.     History. 

Animals,  Plants,  Minerals.  —  The  time  of  the  obser- 
vation   lessons    is    given    mainly    to    observing   things 


250  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

in  nature.  Such  lessons  will  constantly  suggest  other 
interesting  matter,  which  may  be  told  the  pupils,  or 
which  the  pupils  may  learn  from  books.  Such  subjects 
as  the  following  will  profitably  occupy  the  attention  of 
the  pupils  at  least  once  a  week  :  — 

Habits  of  animals,  both  wild  and  domestic. 

Uses  of  animals,  alive  and  dead. 

Manner  of  growth  and  culture  of  all  articles  of  food,  including 
tropical  fruits,  spices,  grains. 

Description,  value,  and  use  of  precious  stones  and  other 
minerals. 

Sometimes  questions  like  the  following  may  be  given 
out,  to  be  answered  by  the  pupils  or  teacher  on  the 
following  day :  — 

How  is  salt  got  from  sea-water? 

What  is  saltpetre,  and  what  is  its  use? 

How  is  gunpowder  made  ? 

What  is  phosphorus,  and  what  is  its  use  ? 

What  is  soda,  and  what  is  its  use  ? 

What  is  potash,  and  what  is  its  use  ? 

How  is  lime  obtained? 

What  is  marble?     What  kinds  are  there,  and  where  found? 

What  is  chalk  ?    Plaster  of  Paris  ? 

How  are  lead-pencils  made? 

What  is  peat,  and  how  is  it  prepared  for  fuel  ? 

What  is  coal  made  from  ? 

What  is  petroleum  or  kerosene  oil,  and  how  is  it  prepared  for  use  ? 

How  are  bricks  made?     Earthenware? 

Of  what  and  how  is  porcelain  made  ? 

How  is  glass  made  ?    How  is  it  made  into  bottles,  goblets,  etc.  'i 

How  are  school-slates  and  slate-pencils  made? 

How  is  iron  got  from  the  ore  '.'     , 

What  is  wrought  iron? 

What  is  steel?     Uses? 

What  is  bronze  ?    Kinds  and  uses  ? 


INFORJNLA.TION   LESSONS.  251 

How  are  pins  made? 

How  are  looking-glasses  made  ? 

AVhere  do  we  get  lead  from  ?     How  obtained  V 

AMiat  are  stereotj'pe  plates,  and  how  are  they  made  ? 

What  is  tin  ?     How  nsed  ? 

Of  what  and  how  are  coins  made  ? 

How  is  gold  obtained  from  rocks  V     From  sand  ? 

Uses  of  nickel  ? 

What  is  dynamite,  and  how  made  ? 

How  are  macaroni  and  vermicelli  made  ? 

How  is  starch  made,  and  what  is  its  use? 

What  is  malt?     Its  use? 

What  is  the  difference  between  fermented  and  distilled  liquors  ? 

What  is  sago  ?     How  made  ? 

W^hat  is  tapioca  ?     How  made  ? 

Place  and  manner  of  growth  of  the  gourd?  the  leek?  garlic? 
cauliflower?  peanuts?  pineapples?  dates?  figs?  raisins?  banana? 
pomegranate?  tea?  coffee?  cloves?  etc. 

What  is  candy  made  of?     What  ingredients  are  mihealthful? 

How  is  camphor  made ?     Uses? 

From  what  is  gum  arable  made  ?    India  rubber  ? 

How  does  flax  grow,  and  what  is  made  from  it?  Hemp?  Cotton? 

What  is  tow?  Jute? 

Describe  cambric  ;  lawn  ;  muslin ;  canvas  ;  nankeen. 

How  and  from  what  is  lace  made  ?     Calico  ? 

From  what  and  how  is  paper  made?     Different  kinds  of  paper? 

Uses  of  oak?  Maple?  Willow?  etc. 

How  is  resin  made,  and  what  are  its  uses  ?  Tar  ?  Lampblack  ? 

Place,  manner  of  growth,  and  uses  of  mahogany?  Ebony?  Bam- 
boo ?  Logwood  ?  Palm  ? 

Manner  of  making  cheese  ? 

What  are  Durham  cattle?  Ayshire?  Alderney?  Jersey? 

How  are  candles  made?  Soap? 

Difference  between  woollen  goods  and  worsted  goods  ? 

What  kinds  of  woollen  goods  ? 

What  is  felting? 

How  are  carpets  made?     Different  kinds  of  carpets? 

How  is  leather  made  ?    Uses  ? 


252  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Kinds  of  fur,  and  where  obtained? 

Uses  of  ivory  ?  How  obtained  ? 

How  is  wax  made,  and  what  are  its  uses? 

How  and  where  is  silk  made  ? 

What  is  velvet?  Satin?  Brocade?  (iaiize?  Crape? 

What  is  obtained  from  the  whale  ? 

What  is  mother-of-pearl,  and  what  are  its  uses? 

What  are  shell  cameos? 

DRAWING. 

Form.  —  The  study  of  Form  is  a  necessary  accom- 
paniment of  drawing,  and  is  begun  in  the  first  year  of 
school.  The  apparatus  needed  for  the  Form  lessons 
given  in  the  primary  grades  are  sphere,  cube,  cylinder, 
pyramid  (rectangular  and  triangular),  prism  (triangular 
and  square),  cone,  spheroid.  Forms  similar  to  those 
already  named  should  be  provided  as  they  are  needed, 
as  rubber  ball,  orange,  boxes,  dice,  lead-pencil,  top,  etc. 
Clay  and  proper  conveniences  for  moulding  should  also 
be  ])rovided.  It  would  be  well  for  the  pupils  to  have 
small  f(n'ms  for  close  observation,  and  the  teacher  to 
have  a  large  form  by  which  to  direct  the  attention  of 
pupils.  The  first  few  lessons  will  consist  of  simple 
comparison  of  familiar  objects  with  respect  to  form. 
An  object  (as  a  ball)  may  be  presented,  and  the  pupils 
bo  asked  to  find  another  object  like  it  in  form.  In  tliis 
way  resemblances  and  differences  of  form  may  be  ob- 
served before  the  forms  are  named  or  before  the  parts 
are  examined. 

The  first  object  for  particular  study  is  the  sphere. 
It  is  first  presented  as  a  whole,  and  the  following  facts 
are  observed  and  ex])i'essed  by  the  pupils :  — 


DKAWIMG.  253 

It  is  rouiul. 

It  will  roll  in  all  directions. 

It  has  an  evenly-curved  surface. 

The  teacher  then  gives  the  name  of  the  object,  and  the 
pupils  say,  "  It  is  called  a  sphere." 

The  cube  and  cylinder  are  next  presented,  and  facts 
observed  as  follows :  — 

1.  General  shape. 

2.  Number  of  surfaces  (faces). 

3.  Form  of  surfaces. 

4.  Equality  of  surfaces. 

5.  Edges : 

(«)  number  ;  (h)  kind  ;  (r)  equality. 
0.   Corners : 

(a)  number;  (6)  kind. 

7.  Things  which  its  form  enables  it  to  do. 

8.  Similar  forms : 

(«)  to  the  entire  object ;  (b)  to  each  part. 

The  object  is  then  moulded  in  clay,  and  the  surfaces 
drawn  upon  the  slate  or  paper.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
study  of  surfaces,  lines,  and  angles  will  be  carried  on  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  solids.  The  simple  names, 
plane  and  curved,  straight  and  curved,  square,  blunt, 
and  sharp,  may  first  be  used  in  describing  the  surfaces, 
edges,  and  corners. 

After  the  sphere,  cube,  and  cylinder  have  been 
studied,  they  may  be  divided  into  two  or  more  sections, 
and  the  parts  may  be  studied  in  the  same  general  way 
as  the  original  wholes.  The  triangular  and  square 
prism,  pyramid,  the  cone,  and  spheroid  are  next  taken 
in  order,  and  studied  as  were  the  cube  and  cylinder. 
The  introduction  of  more  technical  names  may  be  begun 
at  this  point,  as  the  names  of  the  angles  and  triangles : 


254  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

also  diameter,  diagonal,  circumference.  Invention  may 
also  be  begun  here,  color  being  combined  with  form. 
The  sticks  or  colored  paper  of  different  shapes  may  be 
placed  in  order,  beginning  with  the  most  simple  designs, 
and  proceeding  slowly  in  complexity.  At  first  the  pupils 
will  require  considerable  aid  from  the  teacher.  By 
degrees  the  pupils  will  be  led  to  depend  more  upon 
themselves,  until  the  designs  are  entirely  original. 

The  following  plan  of  Form  lessons  pursued  in  the 
Practice  Department  of  the  Framingham  (Mass.)  Normal 
School  will  be  found  helpful  to  teachers  who  can  give 
more  attention  to  the  study  of  Form  than  is  indicated 
in  the  Course  of  Studies.  The  outline  is  prepared  by 
Miss  Ellen  A.  Williams,  critic  teacher  of  the  school. 

FORM. 
Pkimary  School.  —  First  Year. 

It  is  best  not  to  take  up  this  subject  dui-ing  the  first  three 
months  of  the  child's  attendance  at  school,  as  he  has  so  many- 
other  new  things  to  learn.  Some  lessons  in  Color  should  also 
precede  those  in  Form. 

After  the  child  has  learned  the  name  of  the  form,  and  has  become 
familiar  with  its  use  in  little  oral  sentences,  —  "  The  sphere  is  on 
the  table,"  "  Mary  gave  the  sphere  to  the  teacher,"  etc.,  —  he 
should  learn  hj  his  oicn  observation  the  following  points  about  each 
form,  and  should  also  be  led  to  tell  truthfully,  in  his  own  words, 
the  result  of  each  observation. 

2fote. —  At  first  too  much  stress  should  not  be  laid  upon  the  child's 
form  of  expression  ;  but  as  the  Avork  progresses  tln-ough  the  different 
grades,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  draw  from  him  exact  and  concise 
statements. 

Subjects  of  First  Year's  Study.  —  The  sphere,  cube,  and  cylinder. 
The  first  course  of  lessons  should  deal  with  these  forms  as  wholes; 
that  is,  without  dividing  any  of  them. 


DRAWING. 


255 


Name  :  Spelling  learned  from  written  word.  Perfect  familiarity 
with  the  spelling  should  be  secui-ed  by  having  the  child  write  a 
sufficient  number  of  short  sentences  containing  the  name. 

Form :  Sides  —  number  of,  shape,  relative  size,  and  relative 
position.  Edges — number  of,  kind,  relative  length,  relative  posi- 
tion, and  formation.     Corners  —  number  of,  kind,  and  formation. 

Appearance  of  form  from  different  points  of  view  when  at 
rest. 

Appearance  of  form  from  different  points  of  view  when  twirled. 

Things  which  its  form  enables  it  to  do. 

Naming  of  objects  of  approximate  form  which  they  have  seen, 
bringing  as  many  to  class  as  possible. 

Drawing  of  free-hand  pictures  of  plane  surfaces  bounding  the 
solid. 

Drawing  of  free-hand  outlines  of  objects  of  approximate  form. 

Moulding  in  clay  the  perfect  form. 

Moulding  in  clay  simple  objects  of  approximate  form. 

Copying  in  colored  papers  simple  geometrical  designs  based 
upon  the  square,  when  they  study  the  cube ;  upon  the  circle,  when 
they  study  the  cylinder ;  and  upon  combinations  of  square  and 
circle,  when  they  have  completed  the  study  of  both  cube  and 
cylinder. 

Drawing  of  these  designs  upon  slate,  both  in  free-hand  and  by 
tracing  around  cardboard  squares  and  circles. 


Secoxd  Year. 


Divisions  of  Sphere,  Cube,  mid  Cylinder. 


FORM. 

DIVISIONS. 

Sphere     .    . 

Into  two  equal  parts  . 

-       u 

ii                 il                u 

u            (1             a 

Cube    .    .    .  , 

four      "         " 

«             ((             (( 

eight    "        " 

" 

«         «         (( 

NEW  FOEMS  OBTAINED. 

.  Hemispheres. 

.  Plinths. 

.  Triangular  prisms. 

.  Oblong  blocks. 

.  Triangular  prisms. 

.  Cubes  (not  new  forms), 

.  Square  prisms. 


256 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 


Into  two  equal  parts 


Cylinders  (not  new). 
Half -cylinders,  liavingtwo 
Cylinder  .    .  ^  semicircular  faces. 

I      "       "         "         "      .    .  Half-cylinders,  having  an 
(_  ellipse  for  one  face. 

The  study  of  each  of  the  new  forms  obtained  by  division  should 
be  carried  on  in  the  same  order,  and  as  thoroughly  as  the  study  of 
the  sphere,  cube,  and  cylinder  during  the  first  year. 

Last  Part  of  Second  Year,  or  First  Part  op  Third  Year. 

Oblate  and  prolate  spheroids,  quadrangular,  triangular,  and 
hexangular  pyramids,  and  the'  cone. 

This  series  of  lessons  to  be  taken  in  the  same  way  as  the  two 
preceding  series  have  been. 

Third  Year. 

Divisions  of  Spheroids,  Pyramids,  and  Cone. 

Each  of  the  spheroids  may  be  divided  into  two  equal  similar 
parts  iu  three  ways;  but  as  the  new  forms  obtained  by  these 
divisions  are  not  specific  geometric  forms,  and  as  they  present  no 
new  surfaces  for  the  child's  investigation,  it  seems  wise  to  spend 
considerably  less  time  upon  these  forms  than  upon  those  which 
precede  or  follow  them. 

FORM.  DIVISIONS.  NEW  FORMS  ODTAINED. 

'  Into  two  parts Frustum  of 

pyramid. 

Truncated  and 

oblic^ue  pyramids. 
)       Rectangular 
)         pyramid. 
^        Triangular 
i  diagonal  of  base    )         pyramid. 

^  Into  two  parts      .     .     .     > Frustum  of 

pyramid. 

Truncated  and 

oblique  pyramids 
^  from  apex  through  )  Oblique  triangu- 
i     centre  of  base      )      lar  pyramid. 


^1 


( from  apex  through 
Into  two  equal  parts  j  ^j^^^eter  of  base 

( from  apex  through 

"         "        "      1    1.  PI 

f  diagonal  of  base 


►SPh 


DKAWING.  257 

Into  two  parts Frustum  of 

pyramid. 

"       "         "         ,     ,     t      Truncated  and 

oblique  pyramids. 

Into  two  equal  parts Trapezoidal 

pyramid. 

'<       "         "        " Pentagonal 

pyramid. 

^    [■  Into  two  parts Frustum. 

§  J     "       "        "        " Truncated  and 

^    [  oblique  cone. 

Fourth  Year. 

1.  A  review  of  previous  work. 

2.  A  study  of  surfaces,  lines,  and  angles. 

Here,  as  in  all  the  preceding  work,  the  things  to  be  studied  are 
to  be  presented  to  the  child,  and  he  is  to  learn  from  h  is  own  observa- 
tion, and  is  to  make  his  own  definitions. 

Several  illustrations  of  the  special  subject  of  study  should  be 
presented  to  the  child,  and  the  name  given  by  the  teacher. 

The  child  notes  the  common  characteristics,  and  gives  a  de- 
scription. 

An  exact  and  concise  definition  is  gradually  drawn  from  him. 

He  gives  other  illustrations  of  the  same  surface,  line,  or  angle. 
1.   Surfaces,  lines,  and  angles    derived   from    the   sphere   and    /7s 
divisions. 

(1)  Curved  surface. 

Spherical  surface  (convex  surface,  concave  surface). 

(2)  Plane  surface. 

Circle :    circumference   (arc),  chord,  segment,  diameter, 

semicircle,  semicircuniference,  greater   arc,    lesser   arc, 

degree,  radius,  sector,  quadrant,  sextant,  octant,  angle 

(vertex),  right  angle,  olilique  angle  (acute  angle,  obtuse 

angle). 

The  child  should  discover  the  number  of  right  angles  which  can 

be  made  with  their  vertices  at  the  centre  of  a  circle ;   also  the 

number  of  acute  and  obtuse  angles  which  can  be  placed  in  the 

same  wav. 


258  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

2.  Surfaces  and  lines  derived  from  cube  and  its  divisions. 

Square :  parallel  sides,  perpendicular  sides,  diameter,  oblong, 
diagonal,  triangle  (vertex,  base,  altitude),  right  angles 
(isosceles,  scalene),  trapezoid,  trapezium. 

3.  Surfaces  of  cylinder. 

Cylindrical,  ellipse  (focus,  centre,  diameter,  major  axis,  minor 
axis). 

4.  Surfaces  of  spheroids. 

Spheroidal  surface. 

5.  Surfaces  of  pyramids. 

Equilateral  triangle,  hexagon,  pentagon. 

6.  Surfaces  of  cone. 

Conical  surface. 

7.  Lines. 

(1)  From  divisions  of  sphere. 

Cm-ved  (circular),  straight. 

(2)  From  cube. 

Parallel   straight   lines,    perpendicular    lines,    horizontal 
lines,  vertical  lines,  inclined  or  oblique  lines. 

(3)  From  cylinder. 

Elliptical  lines. 

Fifth  Year. 

The  pupil  begins  his  work  in  inventional  geometry,  following 
Spencer's  text-book  on  the  subject. 

Hitherto  nearly  all  his  descriptions  and  definitions  have  been 
oral ;  from  this  point  they  should  be  written  in  a  blank-book 
devoted  to  the  purpose. 

The  problems  should  be  solved  by  the  pupil,  and  not  by  the 
teacher.  So  far  as  possible  the  pupil  should  give  reasons  for  the 
successive  steps  in  his  work. 

Work  in  inventional  geometry  should  be  continued  in  the 
grammar  school  until  the  last  year. 

During  the  last  year  there  should  be  a  thorough,  scientific 
analysis  and  classification  of  all  the  geometrical  knowledge  which 
the  pupil  has  acquired  during  the  entire  course.  Correct  concep- 
tions of  the  geometric  solid,  surface,  line,  and  point  should  be 
acquired  at  this  time. 


DRAWING.  259 

Industrial  Drawing.  —  The  order  followed  in  the 
primary  form  lessons  is  to  be  continued  in  all  of  the 
subsequent  work  in  drawing.  From  models  and  other 
objects  knowledge  is  first  gained,  and  afterwards  is 
expressed  by  drawing.  Following  this,  the  knowledge 
acquired  is  combined  in  new  forms  by  invention  and 
design.  Whatever  books  are  used,  therefore,  the  pupils 
should  not  be  allowed  to  draw^  from  "  flat  copy  "  with- 
out previous  instruction. 

Materials.  —  Some  of  the  materials  used  for  drawing 
should  be  provided,  and  kept  for  use  at  all  times. 
Other  materials  may  be  gathered  or  made  from  time  to 
time  by  the  pupils  themselves.  The  following  mate- 
rials will  be  found  necessary  for  good  work  :  geometric 
forms,  and  other  forms  for  observation,  such  as  boxes, 
leaves,  flowers,  etc. ;  sticks  and  paper  (white  and  col- 
ored), lead-pencils  (hard  and  soft),  rulers,  compasses, 
rubber  erasers,  drawing-paper  and  tracing-paper. 

Preparation  of  Lesson.  —  To  accomplish  good  results 
in  drawing,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  care- 
fully prepare  each  lesson.  The  plan  and  purpose  of  the 
books  in  use  should  be  understood ;  and,  if  a  teacher's 
edition  is  provided,  the  directions  for  giving  each  lesson 
should  be  carefully  studied.  The  correct  position  of 
book,  hand,  and  body  in  drawing,  the  use  of  eraser  and 
ruler,  and  all  other  specific  directions  given  in  the  books, 
should  be  well  understood  and  observed  by  the  pupils 
under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher. 

The  following  hints  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  work  to 
be  done  are  not  intended  to  take  the  place  of  what 
will  be  found  in  the  books  prescribed,  but  are  given  to 
assist  the  teacher  in  seeing  the  purpose  of  drawing,  and 
in  suggesting  valuable  supplementary  work. 


260  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Working  Drawings.  —  A  working  drawing  is  one  by 
means  of  which  an  object  of  a  definite  form  and  size 
may  be  made.  As  soon  as  pupils  have  had  some  prac- 
tice in  drawing  the  faces  of  geometric  forms,  let  them 
draw  some  plane  surfaces  to  scale.  The  surface  of  a 
book  may  be  drawn,  reducing  the  dimensions  one-half. 
The  floor  of  the  schoolroom  may  be  drawn,  one  inch 
for  every  foot,  etc.  Say  to  the  pupils  that  you  want  a 
box  made  of  certain  dimensions,  and  ask  them  to  draw 
hasty  working  views  of  the  top,  side,  and  end,  such  as 
they  would  give  a  carpenter.  After  practice  of  this  kind, 
draw  upon  the  board  free-hand  working  views  of  an 
object,  and  ask  the  pupils  to  draw  with  instruments 
accurate  working  views. 

All  of  this  work  is  of  the  most  practical  kind,  for, 
besides  training  the  hand  and  eye,  it  will  enable  one 
to  give  proper  directions  for  the  manufacture  of  any 
article. 

Construction  of  Objects.  —  The  modelling  of  objects  in 
clay  is  carried  on  in  the  primary  grades,  and  may  be 
continued  to  some  extent  in  the  grammar  grades.  This 
work  will  be  especially  useful  in  connection  with  work- 
ing views.  Small  cubes,  cylinders,  cones,  etc.,  may  also 
be  made  with  paper  or  cardboard  from  drawings  pre- 
viously made.  The  work  may  be  further  pursued  by 
encouraging  the  pupils  to  make  articles  at  home  from 
drawings,  such  as  boxes,  brackets,  and  picture-frames. 

Perspective.  —  The  facts  of  objects  are  represented 
by  working  drawings ;  the  appearance^  by  perspective 
drawings.  In  making  a  working  drawing,  the  eye  is 
supposed  to  be  opposite  each  part  drawn ;  in  making  a 
perspective  drawing,  the  eye  is  supposed   to   be    kept 


DRAWING,  261 

in  one  position.  The  perspective  view  of  a  surface 
placed  squarely  in  front  of  and  near  the  eye  may  not 
be  unlike  the  working  view  in  form.  Carry  the  object 
further  away,  or  turn  it  from  a  square  position,  and  the 
surface  appears  smaller.  The  free-hand  drawing  of  this 
reduced  appearance  should  be  begun  early  in  the  gram- 
mar school  course,  and  be  continued  throughout  the 
course.  Objects  having  plane  surfaces  may  be  first 
drawn,  and  afterwards  other  objects,  as  an  apple,  an 
orange,  a  bell,  a  hat,  etc.  Not  until  the  later  years  of  the 
grammar  school  should  rules  and  problems,  or  instru- 
mental perspective,  be  taught. 

Inventioti.  —  Invention  and  design,  begun  in  stick 
and  paper  laying,  in  the  primary  grades,  should  be  con- 
tinued throughout  the  course,  both  in  drawing  and  ap- 
plied work.  With  the  units  of  design  given  (geometric 
and  plant  forms),  and  by  the  judicious  direction  and 
assistance  of  the  teacher,  the  work  in  design  will  be  at 
once  the  most  practical  and  enjoyable  part  of  the  course. 
The  rules  of  arrangement  may  be  found  in  any  good 
series  of  drawing-books,  and  will  not  be  difficult  to 
understand. 

Home  work  in  making  brackets,  shades,  lamp  mats, 
tidies,  etc.,  will  not  be  the  least  valuable  part  of  the 
lessons  in  design. 

Outline  of  Study.  —  Teachers  may  be  guided  by  the 
following  outline  of  an  eight  years'  course  of  instruction 
for  primary  and  grammar  schools  used  at  the  Massa- 
chusetts Normal  Art  School,  and  in  State  work  under 
direction  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  by 
Charles  M.  Carter. 


262  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

INDUSTRIAL   DRAWING.^ 

Notes. 

Industrial  drawing  as  herein  presented  is  regarded  by  many 
educators  as  the  foundation  of  industrial  training. 

It  gives  skill  in  the  use  of  hand  and  eye,  good  habits  of  thought, 
and  appreciation  of  the  beautiful. 

Drawing  and  designing  are  here  combined  with  the  construction 
of  objects. 

Where  workshop  instruction  is  introduced,  the  drawings  and 
constructed  work  may  be  of  practical  examples,  referring  to  courses 
in  manual  training.  This  plan  shows  how  the  natural  tendency 
of  children  to  occupy  themselves  in  making  objects  at  home  can 
be  made  fruitful  by  intelligent  direction. 

It  may  be  used  either  with  or  without  text-books.  Using  it  as 
a  basis,  teachers  can  determine  whether  to  omit  or  add  to  the 
exercises  of  the  book. 

All  work  may  refer  to  the  following  or  their  combinations :  — 
1.  Working  drawings.  2.  Perspective  drawings.  3.  Invention  or 
design.     4.  Constructed  objects. 

Outline  ok  Each  Year. 

Ideas  of  form  come  from  observation,  they  lead  to  expression, 
and  may  be  combined  into  new  forms  by  imiention  or  design. 

First  Year. —  Ten  minutes  daily,  using  slates  and 
blacl'hoard. 

Observation  of  the  forms  of  objects  in  each  year,  by  eye  and  hand. 

Expression,  employing  construction,  drawing,  and  language. 

General  form  of  objects :  sphere,  cube,  cylinder,  square  prism, 
triangular  prism.  Teach  objectiv^ely  as  wholes.  Construct  each 
of  clay. 

Observation    and   expression    further   developed    by   moulding 
simple  objects  based  on  them,  as  an  orange,  dice,  stick  of  candy, 
etc.     From  the  objects  first  used  teach  the  common  qualities  of 
form,  viz.,  surface  (plane  and  curved),  line,  and  point. 
1  Copyright,  1885,  by  C.  M.  Carter. 


DRAWING.  263 

Commence  teaching  and  representing  the  details  of  these  quali- 
ties from  models  and  objects  :  — 

1.  Points  :  position  (centre,  above,  below,  right,  left). 

2.  Lines :  direction  (straight,  curved) ;  position  (vertical,  hori- 
zontal, oblique)  ;  relation  (parallel,  peqiendicular,  inclined) ;  color 
(light,  dark).     Dividing  into  halves  and  fourths. 

3.  Angles:  right,  acute,  obtuse. 

Objects  and  figures  containing  the  above  should  be  drawn. 
Invention.     Optional.     If  taught,  to  be  similar  to  that  of  the 
second  primary  year. 

Second  Year.  —  Fifteen  minutes  daily,  using  slates,  paper, 
and  blackboard. 
Review  work  of  the  first  primary  year,  including  moidding. 
Expression,  employing  construction,  drawing,  and  language. 
From  the  following  models,  —  triangular  prism,  square  prism, 
pyramids,  etc.,  —  teach  :  — 

4.  Triangle  :  right-angled,  isosceles,  equilateral. 

5.  Square  :  diagonals,  diameters. 

6.  Oblong:  judging,  measuring,  dividing,  and  ruling  distances. 
Draw  single  free-hand  working  views  of  models,  objects,  and 

ornament  illustrating  the  above  plane  figures.  Construct  them  of 
clay,  paper,  wood,  etc. 

Substitute  paper  for  the  slate  during  the  last  half  of  the  year. 

Invention.  Principles:  symmetry,  repetition,  and  alternation. 
Materials :  sticks,  colored  paper  triangles,  squares,  etc. 

Teach  pupils  to  arrange  the  materials  so  as  to  express  the  prin- 
ciples. Subsequently  replace  the  materials  by  lines.  Tracing 
around  units  allowed. 

The  materials  may  also  be  used  to  represent  various  objects,  as 
house,  ship,  etc.  Teach  the  names  of  colors  represented  by  the 
sticks  and  papers,  and  cultivate  a  taste  for  beautiful  combinations. 

Continue  at  times  in  the  same  lesson,  —  form,  drawing,  inven- 
tion, color,  arithmetic,  language,  etc. 

Third  Year.  —  Thirty  minutes  three  times  a  week,  using 
paper  and  blackboard. 
The  first  exercises  review  the  work  of  previous  grades,  in  order 
that  special  attention  may  be  given  to  the  proper  use  of  paper  and 
pencil. 


264:  METHODS   OF    TEACHING. 

Expression,  employing  construction,  drawing,  and  language. 
From  models  and  objects  teach :  — 

7.  Circle :  semicircle,  quadi-ant,  circumference,  diameter,  radius. 

8.  Ellipse :  long  diameter,  short  diameter,  foci. 

9.  Oval. 

Draw  single  free-hand  working  views  of  models,  objects,  and 
ornament  illustrating  the  above  plane  figures.  Construct  them 
from  drawings,  using  wood,  paper,  etc.  Compare  the  beauty  of 
curvature  illustrated  by  different  forms. 

Invention  and  Design.  Principles  :  symmetry,  repetition,  and 
alternation.  Matei'ials:  colored  paper  geometric  forms,  both  sim- 
ple and  varied.  When  pupils  create  the  variations  of  units,  the 
arrangements  are  called  designs. 

Ruling  allowed.  In  all  grades  teachers  should  be  familiar  with 
the  principles  of  growth,  contrast,  repose,  etc. 

Fourth  Year.  —  Thirty  minutes  three  times  a  tveek,  using 
paper  and  blackboard. 

Review  the  circle,  ellipse,  and  oval. 

Expression,  employing  construction,  drawing,  and  language. 

From  models  and  objects  teach  :  — 

10.  Compound  curves ;  reversed  curves. 

11.  Hexagon.  13.   Octagon. 

12.  Pentagon.  14.   Spiral. 

Draw  single  free-hand  working  views  of  models,  objects,  and 
ornament  illustrating  the  above  plane  figures.  Construct  the  plane 
figures,  and  objects  based  on  them,  of  paper,  wood,  etc. 

Design.  Principles :  symmetry,  repetition,  and  alternation. 
Materials  :  conventionalized  leaves,  flowers,  and  buds. 

Ruling  allowed.     In  all  work  strive  for  beauty  of  form. 

Fifth  Year.  —  Thirty  minutes  three  times  a  week,  using 
paper  and  blackboard. 

Expression,  employing  construction,  drawing,  and  language. 
From  models  and  objects  teach  and  draw  :  — 
Free-hand   working  views,   single   and   combined,   illustrating 
plans  and  elevations.     Construct  the  models  of  paper,  first  making 


DRAWING,  265 

simple  developments.  These  models  will  be  useful  in  teaching 
free-hand  perspective. 

Perspective  views  (free-hand).  The  effects  of  foreshortening 
and  distance  explained  in  connection  with  drawing  spherical 
objects,  circles,  cones,  cylinders,  and  objects  based  on  them.  Ex- 
plain that  in  a  working  view  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  opposite 
each  part  of  the  view  represented.  In  perspective  drawing  the  eye 
remains  in  one  position. 

Design.  Principles  :  sjTiimetrj',  repetition,  alternation.  Making 
arrangements  on  given  main  lines  introduced.  Materials:  conven- 
tionalized plant  form.     Use  ruler  and  tracing-paper. 

Designs  may  be  applied  to  objects,  as  pen-wipers,  book-marks, 
etc.,  constructed  by  pupils.  In  this  and  the  following  years  have 
pupils  take  "  main  lines "  from  good  examples,  and  clothe  them 
with  different  material.  Cultivate  taste  by  comparing  examples 
of  good  and  bad  design. 

Sixth  Yeak.  —  Thirty  minutes  three  times  a  iceek,  using 
paper  and  blackboard. 

Expression,  employing  construction,  drawing,  and  language. 

From  models  and  objects  teach  and  draw  :  — 

Working  views,  free-hand  and  instrumental,  single  and  com- 
bined. Two  views  given  to  find  a  third.  IMarking  dimensions ; 
simple  sections.  Construct  simple  objects  from  working  views, 
especially  models  useful  in  free-hand  perspective. 

Geometric  problems,  and  their  applications. 

Perspective  views  (free-hand).  The  convergence  of  parallel 
lines ;  drawings  made  from  the  cube,  oblong  block,  etc.,  and 
objects  based  on  them. 

Design.  Principles :  symmetry,  repetition,  and  alternation. 
Materials:  conventionalized  plant  form. 

Use  rulers,  compasses,  tracing-paper,  and  geometric  problems. 
Make  more  elaborate  bisymmeti-ical  arrangements,  with  and  with- 
out outlines.  Exercises  may  be  planned  in  which  designs  are 
applied  to  objects  constructed  by  pupils.  Historic  ornament  or 
naturalistic  views  of  plant  form  occasionally.  Use  them  as  a  means 
of  cultivating  taste. 


266  METHODS    OF    TEACHIIvIG. 

Seventh  Yeak.  —  Thirty  minutes  three  times  a  week,  using 
paper  and-  blackboard. 

Expression,  employing  construction,  drawing,  and  language. 

From  models  and  objects  teach  and  draw  :  — 

Working  views :  free-hand  and  instrumental,  single  and  com- 
bined ;  marking  dimensions  ;  advanced  developments  ;  simple 
intersections.  From  measurement  make  full-sized,  and  scale  draw- 
ings; also  encom*age  home  construction  from  drawings  of  such 
objects  as  lamp-shades,  picture-frames,  foot-stools,  etc. 

Geometric  problems  completed. 

Perspective  views  (free-hand).  General  review.  Prisms,  pyra- 
mids, plinths,  and  objects  based  on  them.     Groups,  tinting. 

Design.  Principles :  symmetry,  repetition,  alternation,  and 
balance.  Materials :  conventionalized  plant  form  and  details  of 
historic  ornament.  Use  instruments,  tracing-paper,  and  geometric 
problems.  Designs  may  be  applied  to  objects  constructed  by 
children,  such  as  lamp-mats,  pin-cushions,  match-boxes,  etc. 

Historic  ornament  or  naturalistic  views  of  plant  form,  occa- 
sionally.    In  all  exercises  cultivate  appreciation  of  the  beautiful. 

Eighth  Year. —  Thirty  minutes  three-times  a  week,  using  paper. 

Expression,  employing  construction,  drawing,  and  language. 

From  models  and  objects  teach  and  draw :  — 

Working  drawings  (free-hand  and  instrumental).  Instrumental 
work  to  employ  the  T-square,  scale,  triangles,  and  drawing-board. 
Practical  illustrations  of  drawing  applied  in  industrial  pursuits, 
sections,  intersections,  and  developments.  Continue  to  encourage 
home  construction  from  drawings  of  useful  objects,  such  as  boxes, 
bird-houses,  tool-boxes,  brackets,  trays,  etc. 

Perspective  views  (free-hand).  Frames,  crosses,  and  objects 
based  on  them.     Leaning  objects,  groups,  tinting. 

Design.  Optional.  Principles  pj-eviously  studied  combined  with 
those  of  applied  design.  Materials:  conventionalized  plant  form, 
historic  ornament,  nature. 

Design  wall-paper,  inkstand,  paper-weight,  hinge,  etc.  Occasionally 
have  objects  designed  that  may  be  constructed  by  needle-work,  etc. 
Miscellaneous  ornament  illustrating  the  highest  forms  of  beauty. 

Use  drawing  freely  each  year  in  illustrating  other  studies. 


SINGING. 


267 


SINGING.      - 

Of  the  value  of  singing  as  a  regular  exercise  in 
school,  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak.  Neither  should  there 
be  any  question  as  to  whether  it  should  be  regularly 
taught  as  other  subjects  are  taught.  The  fact  that 
teachers  cannot  sing,  or  do  not  know  how  to  read 
music,  should  not  deter  them  from  introducing  the 
subject  in  their  schools.  However  useful  it  may  be  for 
teachers  to  give  good  tones  as  a  model  for  their  pupils, 
it  is  true  that  many  of  the  most  successful  teachers  of 
singing  are  those  who  do  not  sing.  The  various  school 
singing-books  and  charts  now  in  use  will  furnish  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  order  and  amount  of  work  to  be  done, 
and  methods  of  teaching. 

The  following  illustrative  lessons,  prepared  by  Mr. 
L.  W.  Mason,  of  Boston,  will  assist  the  regular  teachers, 
especially  teachers  of  ungraded  schools :  — 


I.    Finding  out  how  many  know  the  Scale. 

Teacher.    All  listen  to  me,  and  tell  me  what  I  sing.     (Teacher 
sings.) 


i 


i 


EEi: 


* 


Do 


Re 


Mi 


Fa 


Sol 


La 


Si 


Do 


Pnpih.   You  sang  the  scale. 
Teacher.    All  may  sing  as  I  did. 

[Eight  or  ten  of  the  class  sing  correctly,  and  the  teacher  should  he  very 
careful  to  let  the  whole  class  share  the  credit.] 


268 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 


Teacher.   That  was  very  well.     Singing  as  you  have  just  done, 
from  the  lowest  sound,  upwards,  is  called  the  ascending  scale.   You 
may  commence  with  the  highest  sound  and  sing 
the  scale  downwards. 

[The  same  pupils  sing  correctly.] 

Teacher.    This  is  called  the  descending  scale. 

DIAGRAM    OF    THE    SCALE. 

Teacher.  I  am  glad  that  so  many  of  you  can 
sing  the  scale  up  and  down.  I  have  drawn  a 
picture  of  the  scale,  or  Music-Ladder,  and  have 
written  the  scale-names,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  upon  eacli 
step ;  also  the  syllables  which  are  used  in  sing- 
ing the  scale.  You  should  know  the  sounds 
of  the  scale,  so  you  can  sing  them  in  order  or 
skipping  about  any  way. 


II.    Developing   the   Idea   of    Two-Part   Measure  in  Con- 
nection    WITH      SINGING      THE      SCALE,     ASCENDING     AND 

Descending. 
Teacher.    All  listen  to  me,  and  tell  me  what  I  do, 
[Teacher  sings  with  marked  accent.] 


8 

Do 

,_, 

7 

Si 

o 

6 

La 

C 

s 

o 

5 

Sol 

s 

4 

Fa 

«v 

3 

Mi 

i. 

2 

Ke 

1 

Do 

:^(feiifeiis^^i 


Do    Do    Re    Re    Mi-     Mi     Fa     Fa    Sol   Sol  La  La    Si    Si    Do    Do 

Teacher.    What  did  I  do  ? 

Pupils.   You  sang  two  of  each  of  the  sounds  of  the  scale. 
Teacher.   You  may  sing  as  I  did. 
[It  is  done  correctly.] 

Teacher.   That  was  well  done.     You  may  sing  the  scale  down- 
ward, beginning  with  8,  in  the  same  way  as  you  sang  it  upward. 
[The  pupils  do  it  correctly.] 


SINGING.  269 

Natural  Rhythm.  —  Teacher.  Singing  two  of  each  of  the  sounds 
of  the  scale  up  and  down,  as  you  did  just  now,  you  sang  the  hrst 
of  each  pair  louder  than  the  second. 

You  did  this  naturalbj :  that- is,  without  thinking  about  it. 
When  the  time  in  music  arranges  itself  into  groups  of  twos,  one 
loud  and  one  soft,  each  pair  is  called  a  two-part  measure.  The 
loud  part  of  the  measure  is  called  accented ;  and  the  soft  part, 
unaccented. 

Beating  Two-Part  Measure,  or  Double-Time.  —  Teacher.  To 
realize  more  fully,  while  singing,  the  accented  and  unaccented 
parts  of  measures  in  Double-Time,  as  music  in  two-part  measure  is 
called,  certain  motions  of  the  hand  are  used.  This  is  called 
heating  time. 

Directions  for  Beating  Time. —  Teacher.  1.  Stand  erect,  poising 
a  little  forward. 

2.  Place  the  left  hand  directly  in  front  of  the  body,  as  high  as 
the  waist,  palm  upwards,  elbow  against  the  side  of  the  body. 

3.  Place  the  right  hand  in  the  left,  so  that  the  middle  finger 
falls  into  the  centre  of  the  palm  of  the  left  hand.  (^Teacher  gives 
the  example.) 

4.  Raise  the  hand,  from  the  wrist  only,  about  45  degrees.  Strike 
down,  and  say  Down.  Hold  the  hand  down  I  Strike  w^,  from  the 
wrist  only,  and  say  Up.     Hold  the  hand  up  ! 

These  are  the  motions  in  beating  Double-Time.  They  should  be 
as  regular  as  the  tick  of  a  clock,  and  should  be  made  as  quickly  as 
possible;  and  the  hand  should  be  held  perfectly  still  during  the 
time  from  one  beat  to  another. 

Teacher.  We  will  now  proceed  to  sing  the  last  exercise  ;  that  is, 
two  sounds  of  each  of  the  scale,  ascending  and  descending,  while 
beating  the  time. 

[Done  correctly.] 

Teacher.  T  fear  you  will  become  tired  if  you  sing  all  the  time ; 
so  I  will  form  the  class  in  two  divisions,  in  order  that  one  division 
may  rest  while  the  other  sings. 

Those  on  my  right  we  will  call  the  First  Division  ;  and  those  on 
niv  left,  the  Second  Division. 


270 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 


I  wish  you  to  sing  the  scale  up  and  down  in  this  way ;  namely, 
the  First  Division  to  sing  the  fii'st  nieasui'e,  and  the  Second  Divis- 
ion to  sing  the  second  measure,  and  so  on. 

You  must  continue  to  beat  the  time,  whether  you  sing  or  not. 
In  this  way  each  division  will  rest  during  every  other  measure. 

Now !  all  ready,  and  see  if  you  understand  what  I  want  you 
to  do. 

[Enough  of  the  pupils  in  each  division  understand  so  as  to  do  it  very 
well.] 

Teacher.   You  have  done  that  much  better  than  I  thought  you 

could. 

III.   Development  of  Three-Part  jMeasure. 

Teacher.   Who  can  tell  what  I  sing  now,  that  is  different  from 
anything  I  have  sung  before  ? 
[Teacher  sings.] 

f  f  r  t 


i=i=:^=^="E3^^^^^^33i=i^^ 


Do 


iE^ 


Do       Do      Re       Re       Re       Mi       Mi 


Fa      Fa      Fa 


^ 


Sol      Sol      Sol       La       La       La       Si        Si 


-^-- 


t=f==t: 


Do      Do       Do 


'Pupils.   You  sang  three  of  every  sound  of  the  scale. 

Teacher.  Yes.  I  will  sing  the  same  again,  and  you  may  tell  me 
which  one  of  the  three  I  sing  loud. 

[Teacher  sings.] 

Ptipils.  You  sang  the  first  of  the  three  loud,  and  the  other  two 
soft. 

Teacher.   Yes.     You  may  sing  as  1  did. 

[Pupils  sing  correctly.] 

Teacher.  That  is  right.  This  kind  of  measure,  with  three  parts, 
—  one  loud  and  two  soft,  —  is  called  a  three-part  measure. 

Teacher.  You  see  that  this  is  another  way  in  which  sounds  fall 
into  groups  naturally ;  that  is,  by  threes,  the  first  of  which  is 
accented,  and  the  second  and  third  unaccented. 


SINGING. 


271 


Special  Drill  in  Beating  Triple-Time. —  Teacher.  In  three-part 
measure  there  are  three  different  motions  of  the  hand.  The  first 
beat  is  the  same  as  in  two-part  measure.  The  second  beat  is  made 
by  bringing  the  hand  smartly  to  the  left,  so  as  to  touch  the  body. 
The  third  beat  brings  the  hand  into  position  for  the  down-beat  of 
the  following  measure. 

[The  pupils  are  to  practise  this  kind  of  measure,  saying,  while  heating, 
Down,  Left,  Up,  till  the  class  can  do  it  perfectly,  accenting  the  down-beat. 
When  this  is  accomplished,  they  will  he  able  to  do  the  following  dictation 
exercises.] 

EXERCISES    IX     THE     SCALE,    ASCENDING     AND     DESCENDING,    WITH 
TRIPLE-TIME. 

Teacher.  I  will  sing  the  last  exercise  while  beating ;  then  I 
want  you  to  do  it. 

[The  teacher  sings  the  exercise,  and  the  pupils  do  the  same,  being  care- 
ful to  accent  the  down-beat.] 

Teacher.    That  is  very  well.     Now  you  may  sing  it  by  divisions, 

one  measure  at  a  time,  up  and  down  the  scale. 

[This  is  done  correctly.] 

IV.   Four-Part  Measure. 

Teacher.  You  may  sing  four  of  each  of  the  sounds  of  the  scale, 
by  the  syllables. 

[The  pupils  sing.] 

Teacher.  That  is  very  well.  You  may  sing  the  same  exercise 
again,  and  accent  the  first  and  third  sounds  in  each  measure,  the 
first  a  little  louder  than  the  third. 


^ 


4  111  ~l — I     I     I     i=F3 


Jtzt 


i 


Do    Do    Do    Do    Re    Re    Re    Re    Mi    Mi   Mi  Mi     Fa   Fa   Fa  Fa 

ft  t  f  f  f  t  T  ■       I  f  T  f 


?=? 


itZlt 


?^ 


-• — m- 


Sol    Sol    Sol    Sol    La    La    La     La     Si     Si     Si     Si     Do    Do  Do  Do 

[The  pupils  sing  the  exercise  very  well.  The  leading  singers  show  that 
they_;>p?  the  time,  or  recurrence  of  the  accent,  — some  by  an  extravagant 
nod  of  the  head,  some  by  throwing  forward  the  whole  body,  and  others  by 
stamping  their  feet,  —  ail  quite  unconsciously.] 


272  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

Teacher.  You  observed  the  accented  parts  very  well ;  but  it  was 
very  funny  to  see  the  different  motions  you  made  as  you  became 
interested  in  keeping  the  time.  Regular  practice  in  beating  the 
time  will  prevent  these  awkward  motions  of  the  body  and  stamp- 
ing of  feet. 

[The  pupils  may  now  take  position  for  beating  four-part  measure.] 

Teacher.  The  four  beats  in  Quadruple-Time  are  :  Down,  Left, 
Right,  and  Up. 

The  Down-beat  is  made  the  same  as  in  double  and  triple  time, 
by  bringing  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand  into 
the  centre  of  the  palm  of  the  left. 

The  Left-beat  is  made  like  that  of  triple  time. 

The  Right-beat  is  made  by  bringing  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand 
from  the  body  on  to  the  Ji'ngei:<  of  the  left  hand. 

The  Up-beat  is  made  by  bringing  the  hand  up  again  to  the  posi- 
tion for  making  the  down-beat. 

Now  sing  —  by  the  syllables  —  the  last  exercise,  beating  the 
time. 

[The  pupils  do  as  directed.] 

Teacher.   Now  sing  by  divisions,  up  and  down. 

[The  pupils  do  it  correctly.] 

Teacher.  I  am  very  glad  you  liave  become  so  much  interested 
in  learning  how  to  sing  the  scale  in  the  different  kinds  of  time, 
that  you  have  not  asked  for  any  songs.  If  you  go  on  in  this  way, 
you  will  soon  be  able  to  read  music  well  enough  to  learn  songs  by 
the  notes,  without  having  ever  heard  them  sung  before. 

V.  Singing  from  Figures. 

Teacher.  We  can  write  exercises  and  tunes  in  figures.  I  will 
write  a  few  exercises  whicli  you  will  sing  without  any  difficulty. 

You  are  to  understand  that  a  figure  witli  a  connna  after  it  means 
a  short  sound  ;  and  with  a  dash  after  it,  means  a  long  sound.  Also 
a  cipher  with  a  comma  after  it  means  a  short  rest ;  and  a  dash,  a 
long  rest.     (To  be  snnf/  tcithout  heating  time.) 

The  following  may  first  be  sung  by  the  teacher  and  pupils,  then 
by  divisions,  the  first  division  singing  the  teacher's  part. 


SINGING.  273 


PITCH  IN   I)  OR  B. 

I. 


r N  -' ^  ^ N  !" ^ 

Teacher.  J'lipiU.  Teacher.  J'upils. 

1,     '2,   i   :3-     II      1,     -J.   I   :!-     I     3,     •_>,   I    1-     II     ;),     2,   |    1-       | 
1,    3,  1  2-    II     1,    ;],  I  -J-    I    2,    ;),  I   1-    11     2,    3,  I  1-     II 


,' N  r N  ,' ^  / V 

Teacher.  Pupils.  Teacher.  Pupils. 

1,     -i,   I   5-     II      1,     ;?,   I    .-,-     I     5,     3,   I    1-     II     5,     3,   I    1-      I 
1,     4,  I   G-     II      1.     4,   I   G-     I     a,     4,   I    1-     11     6,     4,   ]    1-     || 


Teacher.  Pupils. 

1,  3,   15,     5,   I    1,     3,     f)-     11     1,     3,   1   5,     5,   1    1,     3,   1   5-      | 
5,     3,   I   1,     3,   I   5,     3,     1-     II     5,     3,   |    1,     3,  1   5,     3,  1    1-     || 

IV. 

5,  5,  4,  2,  I   1-    3-  I  5,  5,  4,  2,  11-    0-1  2,  2,  4,  4,  1  3-    5-    j 

2,  2,  4,  4,  I   3-    0-  1  5,  5,  4,  2,  |   1-    3-  1   5,  5,  4,  2,  1  1-    0-  || 

In  speaking  of  the  sounds  of  the  scale  as  represented  by  figures, 
always  use  the  names  of  numbers.  Tn  singing,  always  use  the 
syllables  at  first,  then  La,  or  any  other  syllable. 

PITCH  IX  n,  E,  OR  F. 
I. 

1,     2,     3,    2,     I     3,     4,     5-    I     5,    4,     3,    4,    j     3,    2,     1-     || 

II. 

1,     2,     3,     4,     I     5,     G,     5-    I     G,     5,     4,     %    j     2,     2,     1-     1| 


274 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 


3,     2,     1,    2,     I     3,    4,     5-    I     6,     5,    4,     3, 
2,     3,     4,     5,     I     6,     6,     &-    I     5,    4,     3,    4, 


5,     4,     3,     1,     I     2,     3,    2-    I     5,     5,    3,     1, 
2,     3,    4,     5,     I     6,     6,     6-    |     5,     3,     1,     3, 


5,     3,     1,     3,     I     2,     2,     2-    I     4,     3,    2,     1, 
1,     3,     5,     3,     I     4,     5,     0-    1     5,     5,     3,     1, 


4,     3,    2-      I 
3,     2,     1-     II 


2,     2,     1-     II 


5,     5,     5-      1 
2,    2,     1-     II 


PITCH   m  C  OR  D. 


1,     2,   I   3,    2,  I   3,     4,   I    5-   I    0,     7,   I    8,    7,   |   6,    7,    |   8-     || 


8,    7,  I   6,     5,   I   4,     3,   I   2-   |   3,     4,   [   5,    4,    |   3,     2,    |    1-     || 

Nos.  VI.  and  VII.  may  be  sung  with  beating  the  time,  —  Two- 
part  Measure  or  Double-Time.     Also  the  following :  — 


TWO-PART     SINGING. 

Divide  the  class  into  two  equal  parts,  taking  care  to  have  a  few 
of  the  leading  voices  on  each  part. 


KIR8T       /    f)        0 
IIVIRION.   \         '  ' 


(0,    0, 


3,   3, 

0,   0, 


0,  0, 

1,  2, 


3,   3, 

0,    0, 


0,   0, 
4,    3, 


4,   3, 
0,   0, 


1- 
1- 


SINGING. 


275 


3,  3, 

0,  0, 

3,  4, 

0,  0, 


o  o 

->  ~> 

0,  0, 

5,  4, 

0,  0, 


0,   0, 

u- 

4,  4, 

3,  3, 

0,  0, 

0- 

1,  1, 

1- 

0,  0, 

0,  0, 

->  — > 

2- 

0,  0, 

0,  0, 

0,  0, 

5,  4, 

3,  2, 

1- 

3,  3, 

o_ 

3,  4, 

0,  0, 

3,  2, 

1- 

FIRST       /    0  0       I  0  0 

DIVISION.  ^  "'  "'I  "'  "' 

BECONB     1    1  0  3  4 

DIVISION.  V   -■■>  ->     I  '-')  ^> 


5,  6, 
0,  0, 


X. 

7,  8, 
7,  8, 


0,  0, 

8,  7, 


0,  0, 
6,  5, 


4,  3, 
0,  0, 


8,   8,  I  7,   7, 
0,    I  (»,    0, 


0,    0, 
2,    3, 


0,    0, 
4,    4, 


DIVISION 
BECOND 


DIVISION.  ^  *•'>      v^)      I     ^'>      ") 

(  5,    3,    I    0,    0, 
)0,   0,   i  5,   3, 


0,  0, 

6,  6, 

3,  4, 

0,  0, 

5,  3, 
0,  0, 

6,  4, 
0,  0, 


XII. 

0- 


0- 

XIII. 

6- 
0- 

0,  0, 
6,  4, 


"^    1 
'>    1 


XI. 

KIRRT 
DIVISION. 

^0, 

0, 

0, 

0, 

1,  3, 

5— 

0,  0, 

0,  0, 

5,  3, 

1- 

SBTOND 
DmSION. 

!i, 

1, 

3, 

3, 

0,  n, 

0- 

5,  5, 

3,  3, 

0,  0, 

1- 

0,  0, 

0,  0, 

5,  3, 

2- 

5,  5, 

6,  5, 

0,  0, 

0- 

0,  0, 

0,  0, 

6,  7, 

8- 

•">,  5, 

6,  5, 

6,  7, 

8- 

0,  0, 

0,  0, 

0,  0, 

0- 

5,  3, 

6,  4, 

5,  3, 

6- 

3,  6, 

o,  4, 

3,  2, 

1- 

3,  6, 

5,  4, 

3,2, 

1- 

VI.  —  Rkgular   Staff  Notation. 

If  the  pupil.s  liave  ma.stered  tlie  foregoing    lessons,  it  will   be 
very  easy  to  read  from  the  regular  notation. 


276 


METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


THE    PITCH-NAMES    OF    THE    SCALE,    IN    ADDI- 
TION TO  THE  SCALE-NAMES  AND  SYLLABLES. 

The  Letters  and  G-Clef.  —  1.  The  pitch  of 
sounds  is  named  by  the  first  seven  letters  of 
the  alphabet:  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f,  and  (/. 

2.  You  see  by  the  diagram,  that  the  pitch 
of  1  is  c  ;  2  is  d ;  3  is  e ;  4  is  f;  5  is  rj ;  6  is  a ; 
1  \^h ;  and  8  is  c. 

3.  You  will  notice  that  c  is  used  as  the 
pitch  for  both  1  and  8.  We  distinguish  the 
c's  by  the  number  of  marks  over  them.  The 
pitch  of  1  is  called  "  once-marked  c  " ;  and  of 
8,  "  twice-marked  f." 

4.  Upon  the  fifth  degree  of  the  scale 
you  will  observe  this  character,  which 
is  called  the  ^-Clef  or  Key,  and  always 
stands  for  that  letter  or  pitch . 

We  have  already  sung  exercises  in  thi'ee 
kinds  of  measures  :  Two-part  measures.  Three-part  measures,  and 
Four-part  measures. 

The  Staff.  —  Music  is  written  upon  five  lines  and  the  spaces 
between  the  lines.  The  lines  and  spaces,  called  the  Staff,  are 
named  from  the  lowest  upwards ;  thus :  — 


8 

c 

Do 

7 

b 

Si 

6 

a 

La 

5 

gjj 

^Sol 

4 

f 

Fa 

3 

e 

Mi 

2 

d 

Re 

1 

c 

Do 

Fifth  line. 
Fourth  line. 

Third  line. 
Second  line. 

First  line. 


# ■ * 


Fourth  space. 
Third  space. 
Second  space. 
First  space. 


Sometimes  the  spaces  below  and  above  the  staff,  and  also  short 
added  lines,  are  used;  thus:  — 


First  added  space  above. 


.  First  added  line  above. 


First  added  space  below. 


•  First  added  line  liclow. 


SINGING.  277 

VII.  Notes  and  Rests. 

In  the  regular  musical  notation  the  different  lengths  of  soiuids 
are  represented  by  characters,  called  Notes.  Their  shape  and 
names  are  as  follows  :  — 

The  Whole-note  (c?),  which  may  represent  the  whole  time  of  a 
quadruple  measure  in  one  sound. 

The  Half-note  (i  ),  two  of  which  would  be  contained  in  one 
measure. 

The  Quarter-note  (p),  four  of  which  would  fill  one  measure; 
and  the  Eighth-note  (J),  eight  of  which  would  fill  a  measure ; 
according  to  the  following  example  :  — 

It-^-ff-fHT-rrrlrrrrcj'-c^HI 

It  is  usual  to  take  the  note  as  a  standard  for  reckoning  the  time, 
which  corresponds  to  one  beat.  In  the  above  example  the  quarter- 
note  is  the  standard,  four  of  which  fill  a  measure ;  the  figures  at 
the  beginning  of  the  example,  in  the  form  of  a  fraction,  read,  four 
quarter-not eii  in  a  measure,  or  their  value  in  other  notes. 

I  means  two  quarter-notes  in  a  measure,  or  their  value  in  other 
notes ;  as, 

I  means  tia-ee  quarter-notes  in  a  measure  ;  thus, 

If-r— i—rHr — Hr— r~Hr-^-H 

Rests,  or  Marks  of  Silence.  —  Each  note  has  its  corresponding 
rest.     They  are  of  this  form  :  — 

Whole-rest.  Half-rests.  Quarter-rests.  Eighth-rests. 

14-— 1-- 1-^— X— ^"5^-1-=!-=!— ^-=1-^-^— =1-=i-|-| 

All  these  and  other  characters  should  be  taken  up,  and  their 
use  demonstrated  as  they  are  needed. 

From  this  stage  of  progress,  we  would  recommend  a  choice  from 
the  many  excellent  text-books  of  recent  publication. 


278  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

The  following  synopsis  indicates  briefly  the  course  which  may 
be  followed :  — 

1.  A  few  exercises  and  songs  within  the  compass  of  the  scale 
in  the  key  of  C. 

2.  The  extension  of  the  scale  upwards  four  sounds,  and  down- 
wards five  sounds,  in  the  same  key. 

3.  Instruction  in  time  extended  to  two  sounds  of  equal  length 
in  each  part  of  the  measure,  in  |,  |,  and  |  time ;  also  the  dotted 
quarter  (i^')  note. 

4.  The  Chromatic  scale,  ascending  by  sharps  and  descending 
by  flats. 

5.  The  formation  of  the  scale  in  the  keys  of  G,  D,  A,  E,  F,  Bt?, 
Eb,  and  Ab. 

6.  The  introduction  of  Triplets. 

7.  The  introduction  of  |  time. 

8.  The  formation  of  f  time,  as  made  up  of  two  measures  of 
I  time. 

9.  Exercises  and  songs  in  Natural  Harmonies,  in  all  the  above 
keys,  avoiding  difficult  forms  of  Measure  and  unmusical  Rhythms ; 
that  is,  exercises  with  five,  seven,  and  eleven  measures,  these  being 
forbidden  by  the  natural  laws  of  rhythm. 

If  the  time-names  are  used,  they  should  not  take  tlie  place  of 
beating  time  with  the  hand,  in  developing  the  sense  of  measure. 


MEMORY    LESSONS.  279 


MEMORY   LESSONS. 

For  the  purpose  of  cultivating  the  memory  and  at 
the  same  time  of  storing  the  mind  with  choice  thoughts, 
there  should  be  regular  practice  in  memorizing  and  re- 
citing what  has  been  written  by  the  best  authors  — 
both  in  poetry  and  in  prose.  To  accomplish  all  that  is 
desired  to  be  accomplished,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give 
a  definite  time  to  the  work,  and  to  assign  a  given  amount 
to  be  done  in  a  given  time.  From  five  to  ten  lines  a 
week  should  be  committed  to  memory  and  recited  by 
every  pupil,  and  one  hour  a  week  of  school  time  should 
be  given  to  it.  One  or  more  books  of  good  selections 
should  be  upon  the  table  of  every  teacher,  from  which 
to-  copy  what  the  pupils  are  to  memorize.  When  the 
selection  is  placed  upon  the  blackboard,  all  difficult 
words  should  be  taught,  and  the  selection  be  explained 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  clearly  understood  by  every 
pupil.  It  should  then  be  memorized,  and  at  the  next 
memory-lesson  hour  it  should  be  recited  both  in  con- 
cert and  by  individual  pupils.  In  all  grades,  a  simple 
and  natural  expression  of  the  author's  thought  is  to  be 
sought  rather  than  attempts  at  oratorical  display.  Each 
week  the  selections  of  previous  weeks  should  be  recited. 
In  the  higher  grades  it  may  be  well  to  have  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  school  recite  or  declaim  each  week,  every 
pupil  being  expected  to  repeat  from  twenty  to  forty 
lines.  The  first  part  of  the  hour  should  be  given  to 
the  recitation  of  pieces  learned,  and  the  latter  part  to 
teaching  a  new  piece  to  the  whole   school,  although 


280  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

only  a  fourth  part  of  the  school  are  expected  to  memo- 
rize it. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  memory  lessons,  birthdays 
of  noted  persons  may  be  celebrated  by  giving  sketches 
and  anecdotes  of  their  lives,  and  by  reading  and  reciting 
what  they  have  written.  The  pupils  will  greatly  enjoy 
such  exercises,  by  means  of  which  a  real  interest  in  sci- 
ence, art,  politics,  and  the  best  literature  may  be  awak- 
ened. It  is  suggested  that  four  birthday  exercises  be 
given  every  year  in  all  grades  above  the  primary,  and 
that  the  parents  and  friends  of  the  pupils  be  invited  to 
attend  them. 


BUSY-WORK. 

Few  habits  acquired  in  school  are  more  important 
than  a  habit  of  industry.  The  aim  of  the  teacher  should 
be  to  keep  all  pupils  employed  every  mouieut  of  the 
day,  except  during  times  of  recreation.  But  it  is  not 
enough  that  they  be  kept  employed  without  reference 
to  what  they  do,  for  their  natural  activity  may  lead 
them  to  do  that.  There  should  be  in  their  employment 
an  element  of  training,  or  something  which  will  help  to 
develop  their  faculties.  How  to  provide  such  eniplo}- 
ment  for  pupils  of  all  ages  is  indeed  a  difficult  matter. 
It  cannot  be  done  if  the  natural  capabilities  of  the  pupils 
are  not  considered,  —  that  is  to  say,  if  the  work  given 
is  not  adapted  to  the  pupils'  requirements  and  needs. 

To  keep  the  older  pupils  busy  will  not  be  very  diffi- 
cult. If  their  regular  studies  and  teaching  are  what 
they  should  be,  they  will  be  pleasantl}^  as  well  as  profit- 
ably occupied  in  the  preparation  of  lessons. 


BUSY-WORK.  281 

Younger  pupils  will  need  special  attention  and  direc- 
tion. It  will  not  be  enough  to  place  in  the  hands  of 
the  children  toys  and  pictures,  and  bid  them  amuse 
themselves  as  best  they  can.  They  must  be  directed 
how  to  use  the  things  which  are  given  them  before  they 
work  with  them  independently  and  alone.  Do  not 
keep  the  children  occupied  too  long  upon  any  given 
work,  but  change  the  occupation  as  often  as  once  in 
every  fifteen  minutes.  The  following  kinds  of  busy- 
work  may  be  suggestive  :  — 

Every  child  should  be  provided  with  a  good  slate 
and  a  sharpened  pencil,  with  which  he  will  be  occupied 
half  of  the  time  he  is  in  school.  At  one  time  he  may 
be  copying  words  and  sentences  which  are  upon  the 
cards  or  blackboard.  At  another  time  he  may  be  do- 
ing number-work  or  drawing,  alternating  the  slate-work 
with  other  exercises.  Shoe-pegs  and  splints  will  afford 
occupation  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time  in  making  de- 
signs in  imitation  of  what  is  placed  before  him.  With 
the  pegs,  also,  the  child  may  place  in  rows  the  number- 
work;  as  (letting  each  mark  represent  a  peg),  111  +  11  = 
1 1 1 1 1.  After  covering  the  top  of  his  desk  with  such 
work,  he  may  represent  upon  the  slate  what  he  has 
done  ;  as,  3  +  2=5.  Children  can  be  profitably  em- 
ployed with  colored  pegs,  sticks,  splints,  and  papers,  in 
making  combinations  taught  in  previous  color  and  form 
lessons.  Outlines  of  common  objects,  such  as  a  ladder, 
fork,  rake,  or  chair,  may  be  drawn  upon  the  blackboard 
for  the  children  to  imitate  with  the  pegs  or  splints. 

The  kindergarten  games  are  full  of  suggestion  for 
primary  teachers.  Paper-folding,  weaving,  and  stick- 
laying  are  especially  useful  for  busy-work.     It  is  not 


282  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

necessary  to  buy  many  materials,  or  to  follow  closely 
the  order  given  in  the  kindergarten.  Wooden  tooth- 
picks, splints,  and  different  kinds  of  paper  will  con- 
stitute much  of  the  needed  material  for  these  games. 
Pictures  may  be  pasted  upon  cardboard  which  can  be 
cut  into  pieces  for  the  younger  children  to  put  together. 
The  same  may  also  be  done  with  designs  upon  card- 
board. 

Forms  of  animals  and  other  objects  can  be  made  of 
cardboard  or  pasteboard  and  given  to  the  children  for 
tracing.  After  the  form  is  traced,  the  children  should 
be  encouraged  to  draw  lines  representing  the  various 
parts. 

Second  and  third  year  pupils  can  be  kept  busy  in 
language-work,  copying  from  the  reader,  making  sen- 
tences with  given  words,  or  making  statements  or  stories 
from  pictures  placed  before  them. 

Letters  upon  paper  or  cardboard  for  making  words, 
and  words  for  making  sentences,  will  be  found  useful  in 
keeping  children  busy.  The  letters  and  words  can  be 
bought  in  boxes,  or  they  can  be  cut  out  and  collected 
by  the  pupils  and  teacher.  The  older  children  of  the 
primary  and  ungraded  schools  may  be  called  upon  at 
times  to  collect  and  distribute  the  cards,  splints,  etc., 
and  they  may  sometimes  assist  the  little  ones  in  their 
slate-work. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  very  youngest  children 
will  be  in  school  during  the  whole  of  two  sessions. 
They  should  be  dismissed  when  the  session  is  half 
through,  or  if  the  distance  to  their  homes  is  too  great 
for  them  to  go  alone,  they  should  be  allowed  to  go  to 
the  playground  or  anteroom  to  play. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE.  283 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 

Play  in  the  open  air  is  undoubtedly  the  best  exercise 
for  children;  but  when  large  numbers  of  children  are 
brought  together  on  the  playground,  there  are  certain 
dangers  which  can  only  be  avoided  by  the  teacher's 
presence.  To  see  that  all  are  exercising,  and  that  the 
exercise  is  not  excessive,  —  not  to  mention  still  weightier 
reasons,  —  it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  oversee  the 
games,  and  perhaps  to  participate  in  them.  Whenever 
this  cannot  be  done,  or  whenever  the  weather  is  cold  or 
stormy,  the  recess  should  be  omitted,  and  in  its  place 
there  should  be  marching  or  other  gymnastic  exercises. 
It  is  not  well  to  have  the  physical  exercises  immedi- 
ately after  recess  or  at  the  commencement  of  a  session ; 
neither  should  they  be  given  just  before  dismissal. 
They  should  be  given  in  the  middle  of  a  session  when 
there  is  no  recess ;  or  if  there  is  a  recess,  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour  before  they  leave  the  room. 

The  exercise  will  be  more  enjoyable  and  the  interest 
will  be  better  maintained  by  having  the  movements 
made  to  music.  If  nothing  better  can  be  provided,  a 
boy  may  mark  the  time  with  clappers,  or  the  teacher 
may  count.  In  the  primary  and  kindergarten  singing- 
books  there  can  be  found  pretty  motion  songs,  in  which 
the  children  are  led  to  combine  motions  with  singing. 

If  the  physical  exercises  are  given  merely  as  a  diver- 
sion, the  motions  may  be  gently  given ;  but  if  the  exer- 
cises are  meant  to  quicken  the  circulation  and  strengthen 
the  muscles,  the  motions  should  be  made  with  great 
rapidity  and  exactness.     If,  for  example,  the  arm  is  to 


284  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

be  raised  to  a  horizontal  position  in  front,  much  greater 
strength  is  required  to  raise  it  directly  in  front  in  a 
straight  line  very  rapidly,  and  to  stop  it  as  soon  as  it 
has  reached  a  horizontal  position,  than  to  raise  it  slowly 
and  carelessly. 

The    following   exercises   have   been    used   in   some 
schools,  and  may  be  of  assistance  to  teachers :  — ■ 

I.  Breathing  Exercise. 

(^Shouhlerx  tJiroiiui  hack,  luimls  on  hipx.^ 

1.  Draw  in  the  breath  slowly,  and  expel  it  slowly  (indicated  by 
motion  of  the  teacher's  hand). 

2.  Draw  in  the  breath  slowly,  and  expel  it  quickly. 

3.  Draw  in  the  breath  quickly,  and  expel  it  slowly. 

4.  Draw  in  the  breath  quickly,  and  expel  it  quickly. 

5.  Repeat  each  exercise,  holding  the  breath  a  few  seconds. 

II.  Breathing  Exercise. 

(Good  exercise  for  straightening  the  bodi/.) 

1.    Stand  with  arms  folded  behind,  and  one  foot  eight  inches  in 
front  of  the  other. 

'2.    Draw  the  head  back,  and  tip  it  as  far  down  behind  as  you  can. 

3.  Hold  the  chin  up  high. 

4.  Rest  there  a  moment,  and  then  stand  up  stiaight  again. 
Repeat  the  exercise  six  times. 

Breathe  deep,  full  breaths  all  the  time.  —  slowly,  and  as  large 
breaths  as  you  can. 

III.      To    ENLARGE    THE    ChEST. 

1.  Raise  the  chin  as  high  up  as  you  can,  until  your  eyes  look 
up  at  the  ceiling  right  over  your  head. 

2.  Hold  your  chin  this  way  a  moment. 

3.  Take  two  or  tliree  fidl  inspirations  slowly.    Repeat  three  times. 

4.  Put  your  hands  upon  your  hips,  fingers  in  front. 

5.  Draw  your  cliin  up;  throw  your  head  back. 


PHYSICAL    EXEllCISE.  285 

6.  Take  one  good,  full  inspiration,  very  slowly,  and  resume  the 
erect  position. 

7.  Repeat  this  exercise  three  times. 

Whatever  lifts  the  chin  and  throws  the  shoulders  back,  enlarges 
the  chest  and  makes  the  lungs  stronger. 

IV.      MOVKMEXTS    FOR   YOUXG    CHILDREN. 

I.  Posiiion. — -Sit  erect;  eyes  steadily  in  front ;  shoulders  thrown 
back ;  arms  hanging  by  the  side ;  feet  in  front ;  heels  four  inches 
apart;  toes  turning  out,  forming  with  each  other  an  angle  of 
twenty-five  degrees. 

2.  Arms  folded. 

3.  Hands  clasped  and  resting  on  edge  of  desk. 

4.  Right  hand  thrown  horizontally  in  front. 

5.  Left  hand  same  as  right  in  Xo.  4. 

6.  Strike  hands  together  in  front  five  times. 

7.  Right  hand  on  head. 

8.  Both  hands  on  head. 

9.  Strike  hands  together  five  times  over  head. 
10.  Fingers  resting  on  top  of  shoulders. 

II.  Strike  hands  together  five  times  in  front. 

12.  Hands  on  top  of  head. 

13.  Strike  hands  together  five  times  over  head. 

14.  Hands  twirling  over  head. 

15.  Hands  brought  suddenly  to  desk  with  noise. 

16.  Arms  folded. 

17.  Fingers  resting  on  top  of  shoulders. 

18.  Hands  on  top  of  head. 

19.  Strike  hands  together  five  times  over  head. 

20.  Fingers  twirling  rapidly  over  head. 

21.  Hands  brought  to  desk,  softly  tapping  with  tips  of  fingers, 
in  imitation  of  rain. 

l_Remarks.  —  The  force  of  the  storm  maybe  graduated  by  signals 
from  the  teacher.  The  pupils  may  at  the  same  time  whistle  in 
imitation  of  wind.  Two  or  three  of  the  pupils  may  be  designated 
to  strike  heavily  on  their  desks  with  the  fists,  at  intervals,  imitating 
thunder.] 

22.  Fold  arms,  sitting  perfectly  still. 


286  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

V.    Free  Gymnastics.  —  Sitting. 

(The  counting  is  in  measures  from  one  to  eight,  each  measure 
taken  four  times.) 

A. 

1.  Hands  on  hips,  fingers  front. 

2.  Hands  on  shoulders  (arms  at  side), 
•].   Hands  on  head. 

4.    Clap  hands  above  head. 
").   Hands  on  head. 

6.  Hands  on  shoulders  (like  2). 

7.  Hands  on  hips  (like  1 ). 

8.  Arms  folded  in  front. 
(Take  four  times.) 

B. 

(Two  movenieuts  only.) 

1.  Hands  on  hips. 

2.  Clap  hands  in  front. 

Repeat  to  complete  thirty-two  counts. 

C. 

1.  Strike  left  shoulder  lightly  with  right  hand. 

2.  Return  right  hand  to  right  hip. 

3.  Strike  right  shoulder  with  left  liand. 

4.  Return  left  hand  to  left  hip. 
Repeat  to  complete  thirty -two  counts. 

D. 
Position.  —  Hands  on  hips,  fingers  front. 

1.  Carry  right  hand  to  right  shoulder  (arm  at  side). 

2.  Carry  left  hand  to  left  shoulder. 

3.  Return  right  liand  to  position. 

4.  Return  left  liand  to  position. 
Repeat  to  complete  thirty-two  counts. 

E. 

1.  Right  hand  on  right  shoulder. 

2.  Right  hand  up  above  head  (arm  straight). 

3.  r^eft  hand  on  left  slioulder. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE.  287 

4.  Left  hand  up  above  head  (arm  straight). 

5.  Snap  fingers  of  both  hands. 

6.  Like  5. 

7.  Like  5. 

8.  Hands  on  hips. 

Repeat  to  complete  thirt3'-t\vo  counts. 

VL    Free  Gymnastics.  —  Standing. 

Position.  —  Heels  together;  toes  out,  so  that  the  feet  may  form  a 
right  angle ;  shoulders  and  hips  drawn  back ;  hands  naturally  at 
sides,  unless  otherwise  specified  ;  hands  firmly  clenched ;  all  thrusts 
are  from  the  chest,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

Ti}iie.  —  Each  number  extends  through  what  may  be  called  one 
strain  of  4 — 4  music,  or  eight  accented  and  eight  imacceuted  beats. 
Time  may  be  kept  also  by  counting  the  numerals  from  one  to  eight 
for  the  heavj'  beats,  and  for  the  light  beats,  saying  "and." 

Hand  Movements.  —  1.  Thrust  R.  H.  down  from  chest  twice ;  L. 
twice ;  alternate  twice  ;  simultaneous  twice. 

2.  Repeat  Xo.  1,  thrusting  out  at  side. 

3.  Repeat  Xo.  1,  thrusting  up. 

4.  Repeat  Xo.  1,  thrusting  in  front. 

5.  R.  H.  down  once;  L.  once  ;  drum-beat  (R.  a  little  in  advance 
of  L.)  once  ;  simultaneous  once ;  same  out  at  sides. 

G.   Repeat  Xo.  5,  thrusting  up  and  in  front. 

7.  R.  H.  down  once;  L.  once;  clap  hands;  same  out  at  sides. 

8.  Repeat  Xo.  7,  thrusting  up  and  in  front. 

Foot  Movements.  —  9.  Hands  on  hips  ;  divide  a  circle  about  the 
body,  with  a  radius  of  from  two  to  three  feet,  into  eight  equal 
parts,  by  stepping  forward,  diagonal  forward,  at  side,  diagonal 
back,  etc.,  with  R.  F.  keeping  L.  knee  straight  and  the  feet  at 
right  angles,  except  last  two  steps,  bending  R.  knee  each  step. 

10.   Repeat  Xo.  9  with  L.  F. 

IL   Same  movement,  alternating  R.  and  L.  half  around. 

12.  Complete  the  movement  of  Xo.  11. 

13.  Charge  diagonal  forward  with  R.  F.,  advancing  with  three 
steps,  bending  R.  knee,  L.  straight;  same  on  the  L.  side;  same 
diagonal  back  on  R.  side ;  same  L. 

14.  Repeat  Xo.  13. 


288  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

Body  Movements.  — 15.  Hands  on  hips ;  twist  upper  body  half 
round  to  R.,  then  to  L.,  alternately,  stopping  in  front  on  unac- 
cented beats. 

16.  Bend  upper  body  to  R.  and  L. 

17.  Bend  forward  and  back. 

18.  Bend  body  to  11.,  back,  L.,  front;  then  reverse,  bendmg  to 
L.,  back,  R.,  front ;  repeat,  becoming  erect  only  on  last  beat. 

Head  Movements.  —  19.  Same  as  15,  except  that  the  head  alone 
is  moved. 

20.  Same  as  16,  except  that  the  head  alone  is  moved. 

21.  Same  as  17,  except  that  the  head  alone  is  moved. 

22.  Same  as  18,  except  that  the  head  alone  is  moved. 
Miscellaneous  Movements.  —  23.  Arms  extended  in  front,  thumbs 

up,  raise  hands  about  a  foot,  and  bring  forcibly  to  shoulders. 

24.  Arms  same  as  No.  23;  raise  R.  H.  to  perpendicular  ovei* 
head  twice ;  L.  twice ;  alternate  twice ;  and  simultaneous  twice. 

25.  Thrust  hands  down,  out  at  sides,  up,  in  front,  twisting  the 
arms  at  each  thrust ;  repeat. 

26.  Repeat  No.  25. 

27.  Thrust  hands  to  floor,  not  bending  knees ;  then  over  head, 
rising  on  toes,  opening  hands  at  each  thrust. 

28.  Hands  at  sides  open ;  swing  them  overhead,  clapping  them, 
at  same  time  stepping  R.  F.  to  L.,  and  L.  F.  to  R.,  alternately. 

29.  Stamp  L.  F. ;  then  R. ;  then  charge  diagonal  forward  with 
R. ;  bend  and  straighten  R.  knee,  at  same  time  throwing  arms  back 
from  horizontal  in  front. 

30.  Repeat  No.  29  on  L.  side. 

yil.    Bean-Bag  Exercises. 

These  exercises  are  performed  by  couples,  partners  standing 
from  six  to  ten  feet  apart,  facing  each  other,  unless  otherwise 
specified. 

The  bag  should  be  made  of  strong  cloth,  strongly  sewed,  and 
should  be  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  square  inside  of  seam; 
should  be  about  two-thirds  filled  with  beans,  or  other  grain, 
and  should  be  entirely  free  from  dust. 

1.  Throw  from  chest  with  both  hands. 

2.  Tlirow  from  chest  with  R.  H. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE.  289 

3.  Throw  from  chest  with  L.  H. 

4.  Bag  behind  the  head,  throw  over  the  head  with  both  hands. 

5.  Same  with  R.  H. 

6.  Same  with  L.  II. 

7.  Partners  standing  R.  side  toward  R.,  throw  witli  both  hands. 

8.  Same  with  R.  H. 

9.  Same  with  L.  H. 

10.  L.  to  L.,  throw  with  both  hands. 

11.  Same  with  R.  H. 

12.  Same  with  L.  H. 

13.  Bag  behind  the  l)ack,  throw  over  head  with  both  hands. 

14.  Same  with  R.  H. 

15.  Same  with  L.  II. 

16.  Tlirow  with  R.  II.  l)ehind  the  back,  grasping  R.  elbow. 

17.  Same,  throwing  with  L. 

18.  Back  to  back,  throw  over  head  with  both  hand.s,  catching  in 
same  position. 

19.  Thi'ow  bag  from  R.  elbow ;  catch  with  both  hands. 

20.  Same  from  L.  elbow. 

21.  Throw  l)ag  with  feet;  catch  with  both  hands. 

22.  Two  bags  ;  throw  at  same  time  with  R. ;  catch  with  L. 

23.  Same,  except  thi-owing  with  L.  and  catching  with  R. 

24.  Throw  with  both  hands  at  the  same  time ;  catch  with  both. 

25.  Three  bags ;  throw  with  R.,  catch  with  L. 

26.  Three  bags ;  throw  with  L.,  catch  with  R. 


Part   III 

ORGANIZATION,  MORAL  TRAINING, 
AND  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT. 


3>®<0 


ORGANIZATION. 

School  Buildings.  —  Locality.  —  The  first  considera- 
tion in  fixing  the  locality  of  a  schoolhouse  is  healthful- 
ness.  The  ground  upon  which  it  is  placed  should  be 
high,  and  the  soil  sandy,  so  as  to  allow  good  drainage. 
It  should  be  located  with  reference  to  the  convenience 
of  the  pupils  attending  the  school,  and  so  retired  that 
the  school  will  not  be  disturbed  by  noises  from  without. 

Privies.  —  Privies  should,  if  possible,  be  separated 
from  the  schoolhouse,  and  have  a  separate  apartment 
and  approach  for  each  sex.  Dry  earth  should  be  placed 
daily  in  the  vaults,  which  should  be  frequently  cleaned 
out.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  the  construction  of 
water-closets  located  in  the  schoolhouse,  and  constant 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  matter  of  cleansing  and 
disinfecting.  The  closets  should  be  placed  as  far  from 
the  furnace  as  possible,  and  should  be  thoroughly  ven- 
tilated by  means  of  pipes  and  windows. 

Size    of    School-rooms.  —  The    size    of    schoolrooms 


SCHOOL   BUILDINGS.  291 

should  depend  upon  the  present  and  prospective  num- 
ber of  pupils.  There  should  be  sufficient  rooiu  for  the 
seats  and  desks  of  pupils,  recitation-seats,  platform 
and  desk  of  teacher,  and  apparatus.  In  determining 
the  size  of  rooms  reference  should  be  had  also  to  proper 
ventilation  and  heating,  and  to  ease  of  speaking. 

A  school  of  thirty  or  forty  pupils  can  be  well  ac- 
commodated in  a  room  twenty-six  feet  by  thirty,  the 
teacher's  desk  being  placed  at  the  end  of  the  room.  If 
the  number  of  pupils  is  fifty,  or  is  likely  to  be  fifty,  the 
size  of  the  room  should  be  twenty-eight  or  thirty  feet 
by  thirty-six.  For  the  sake  of  good  order  the  gathering 
of  a  large  number  of  pupils  into  one  room  should  be 
avoided  so  far  as  possible.  At  least  should  the  number 
of  recitation-rooms  belonging  to  a  school  be  limited  to 
one,  located,  if  possible,  on  the  same  floor  as  the  large 
room. 

Lighting.  —  Windows  should  be  placed  if  possible  at 
the  left  and  behind  the  desks  of  pupils.  The  window 
surface  of  a  room  should  be  from  one-eighth  to  one-fifth 
of  its  floor  surface.  The  amount  of  light  admitted 
may  be  regulated  by  curtains  or  inside  blinds.  Win- 
dows should  not  be  in  front  of  pupils  as  they  sit  in 
their  seats. 

Ventilation  and  Heating.  —  Two  things  are  to  be  ac- 
complished in  ventilation :  first,  to  get  rid  of  the  bad 
air;  and  secondly,  to  introduce  fresh  air.  To  accom- 
plish the  first-named  object  there  should  be  one  large 
or,  what  is  better,  two  small  ducts  connecting  the 
room  with  the  outer  air.  These  ducts  should  extend 
from  floor  to  ceiling,  and  should  have  openings  in  the 
upper  and  lower  parts.     To  make  strong  and  constant 


292  ORGANIZATION. 

the  out-going  current,  the  ducts  should  be  heated  in 
some  way.  In  buildings  heated  by  steam,  the  ducts 
can  be  heated  by  means  of  pipes  running  through  them. 
In  other  buildings  the  ducts  can  be  constructed  next 
to  the  chimney  or  smoke-stack,  or  they  can  be  warmed 
by  lamps  or  a  kerosene  stove.  One  of  the  best  means 
of  carrying  away  impurities  is  the  open  fireplace  found 
in  a  few  schoolrooms.  At  a  comparatively  slight  ex- 
pense this  excellent  means  of  ventilation  can  be  pro- 
vided in  most  of  our  country  schoolhouses. 

Having  provided  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  impure 
air,  the  next  thing  is  to  introduce  pure  air  to  take  its 
place.  To  get  a  proper  supply  of  fresh.air,  it  is  gener- 
ally found  necessary  to  open  the  windows,  thereby 
exposing  the  pupils  to  draughts  of  cold  air.  This  may 
be  obviated  in  some  degree  by  placing  a  strip  of  board 
five  or  six  inches  wide  under  the  lower  window-sash,  so 
as  to  allow  a  current  of  air  to  pass  upwards  between 
the  upper  and  lower  sash.  But  it  is  neither  economical 
nor  healthful  to  bring  into  circulation  air  which  is  not 
first  warmed.  In  rooms  heated  by  stoves  it  is  easy  and 
entirely  practicable  to  introduce  a  supply  of  warm  fresh 
air.  A  covering  may  be  made  to  encase  the  stove  so  as 
to  form  a  hot-air  chamber  communicating  with  the  outer 
air  by  a  cold-air  box.  This  is  done  in  some  places,  and 
found  to  be  of  great  service  in  ventilation. 

The  hot-air  furnace  is  supposed  to  furnish  a  constant 
supply  of  warm  fresh  air.  Great  care,  however,  must 
be  taken  that  poisonous  gases  do  not  enter  the  room. 
Constant  attention  must  be  given  to  the  ventilation  of 
the  basement,  to  the  cold-air  boxes,  to  evaporation,  and 
to    the   di'aughts   of  the   furnace.      Steam-heating    by 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS.  293 

direct  radiation  is  not  uncommon,  even  in  new  and 
costly  buildings,  but  it  is  little  better  than  heating  by 
stoves,  so  far  as  ventilation  is  concerned.  There  may 
be  a  saving  of  money,  but  not  of  health,  by  heating  a 
building  in  this  way.  Some  of  the  dangers  may  be 
avoided  by  constructing  hot-air  chambers  about  the 
radiators,  to  which  fresh  air  can  be  introduced  from 
without  through  cold-air  boxes.  Steam-heating  by  in- 
direct radiation  furnishes  a  constant  supply  of  warm 
pure  air,  and  is  therefore  the  best  method  of  heating 
schoolrooms.  With  properly  arranged  ducts  for  tak- 
ing away  the  impure  air,  there  need  be  little  difficulty 
in  securing  good  ventilation  in  rooms  heated  in  this  way. 

If  it  is  found  necessary  to  heat  the  schoolroom  by 
stove,  two  stoves  will  be  found  better  than  one.  With 
two  stoves  a  more  equable  temperature  may  be  main- 
tained than  with  one,  and  there  wdll  be  less  danger  from 
an  overheated  surface,  which  burns  the  surrounding  air. 
A  dish  of  water  should  be  placed  upon  the  stoves  for 
evaporation. 

The  temperature  of  the  room  should  be  kept  as  near 
as  possible  at  68°  Fahrenheit. 

Furniture  and  Furnishings.  —  Single  desks  for  the 
pupils  should  be  i)laced  in  rows  two  feet  apart.  The 
seats  and  desks  sliould  be  constructed  with  special  ref- 
erence to  the  health  and  convenience  of  pupils.  They 
should  be  of  such  a  height  and  be  placed  at  such  a  dis- 
tance from  the  desk  as  to  enable  the  pupils  to  take  a 
comfortable  position,  with  the  feet  upon  the  floor.  The 
desks  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  the  books  to 
be  placed  inside,  and  to  allow  the  pupils  to  take  a  good 
position  in  writing. 


294  OEGAKIZATION. 

Ink-wells  with  covers  should  be  placed  in  all  desks 
designed  for  pupils  who  write  with  pen  and  ink. 

Besides  desks  and  seats  for  pupils,  the  following 
articles  are  necessary  in  every  schoolroom :  desk  for 
teacher,  chairs  for  teacher  and  visitors,  crayons,  erasers, 
pointers,  clock,  bell,  thermometer,  broom,  ink-filler, 
dustpan,  dusters,  closet  or  bookcase,  and  table  for 
number-work. 

In  addition  to  the  above-named  articles  many  school- 
rooms have  the  following :  waste-basket,  sponge-pail, 
wall-ornaments,  toilet  appliances,  moulding-table,  and 
piano  or  organ. 

Blackboards.  —  Blackboards  of  natural  slate  or  some 
well-tried  artificial  preparation  should  be  placed  entirely 
around  the  room,  wherever  spaces  are  left  between 
windows  and  doors.  They  should  be  at  least  four  feet 
in  width  and  sufficiently  near  the  floor  to  enable  the 
pupils  to  reach  them  easily.  If  the  liquid  slate  is  used, 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  foundation  firm  and 
smooth. 

Apparatus.  —  The  kind  and  amount  of  apparatus 
used  in  teaching  indicate  in  no  small  degree  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  done.  Therefore,  the  question  so  often 
asked.  What  apparatus  is  needed  in  the  schoolroom? 
becomes  a  serious  one.  It  is  not  always  desirable  to  pur- 
chase apparatus  which  is  the  most  costly.  Indeed,  much 
of  the  most  valuable  apparatus  used  maybe  made  or  gath- 
ered by  the  teachers  and  pupils  —  especially  that  which 
is  needed  in  the  Observation  Lessons.  Charts  of  any 
kind  can  be  made  of  thick  Manilla  paper,  marked  with 
artist's  crayon,  or  with  a  rubber  pen.  The  following 
list  comprises  the  minimum  amount  which  should   be 


AI'I'AUATUS    AND    REFEREXCE-BOOKS.  295 

found  in  every  schoolroom,  or  at  least,  which  should 
be  accessible  to  every  teacher.  Blocks,  splints,  and 
shoe-pegs  for  number  and  "busy- work";  measures 
(dry,  liquid,  linear,  metric)  ;  balance,  toy  money,  globe, 
wall  maps;  charts  for  number,  reading,  writing,  anatomy, 
and  music ;  numeral  frame,  drawing  models  and  com- 
passes, toys  and  other  objects  for  reading;  forms  for 
mensuration ;  pictures  for  language,  geography,  his- 
tory, etc. ;  cardboard  for  number,  language,  etc. ;  colored 
worsted,  colored  cardboard  for  form  and  color;  plants, 
minerals,  mounted  insects ;  appliances  for  busy-work  ;  ^ 
pen-holders  and  pens,  slates  and  pencils,  sponges  or 
slate-cloths,  lead-pencils,  paper  (white  and  brow'n), 
blank-books,  ruler ;  coarse  files  for  sharpening  pencils 
when  pencil-sharpeners  are  not  provided. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  above  list  does  not  comprise 
some  of  the  means  of  teaching  ph^'siology  and  other 
observation  lessons,  which  may  be  gathered  from  day  to 
day,  such  as  flowers,  leaves,  and  plants,  which  are  of 
temporary  use  only,  and  the  parts  of  animals  obtained 
from  the  butcher's.  Neither  does  the  list  include  the 
little  contrivances  used  for  illustrating  mensuration  of 
boxes,  walls,  etc. 

Reference-Books.  —  In  addition  to  the  text-books 
regularl}'-  used  there  should  be  within  easy  access  books 
of  all  kinds  for  both  teachers  and  pupils.  For  the 
higher  grades  an  encyclopedia,  a  gazetteer,  a  large  dic- 
tionary, and  several  small  dictionaries  will  be  found 
useful  in  connection  with  the  geography,  history,  and 
reading  lessons.  Histories,  biographies,  illustrated 
books  of  travel,  and  other  supplementary  reading-books 
1  See  page  280. 


296  ORGANIZATION. 

should  be  used  for  silent  and  sight  reading  daily ;  such 
reading  will  greatly  increase  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
in  their  regular  studies. 

The  following  list  contains  the  names  of  a  few  books 
which  will  be  found  useful  for  i-eference.  Among  the 
books  named,  those  marked  with  a  star  are  designed  to 
be  used  exclusively  by  teachers.  Titles  printed  in  italics 
name  books  which  are  specially  adapted  to  primary 
grades  ;  all  others  are  adapted  to  the  higher  or  to  all 
grades. 

ARITHMETIC   AND   BOOK-KEEPING. 

Arithmetical  Problems.     Fish.     I.,  B.,  T.,  &  Co. 

Arithmetic  by  300  Authors.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Arithmetic  for  Primary  Grades.     Fisher.     N.  E.  I'ub.  Co. 

Book-Keeping  for  Grammar  Schools.     Meservey.     T.,  B.,  &  Co. 

Book-Keepiug.     Gay.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Common  School  Book-Keeping.     Bryant  &  Stratton.    Am.  Bk.  Co. 

Crittenden  Commercial.     Eldredge  &  Co. 

Exercises  in  Arithmetic.      Wentworth  &  Hill.     Ginn  &  Co. 

First  Steps  in  Number.      Wentworth  &  Reed.     Ginn  &  Co. 

*  Grant's  Arithmetic,  for  Young  Children.     Ed.  by  Small.     L.  &  S. 
Grube  Method  of  Arithmetic.     Seely.     E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 
Number  Lessons  for  Supplementary  Work.     L.,  S.,  &  S. 

Series  of  Arithmetics  published  by  American  Book  Co.  ;  Cowperthwait 
&  Co.  ;  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  ;  Ginn  &  Co. ;  Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co. ; 
Leach,  Shewell,  &  Sanborn ;  Taintor  Brothers  &  Co.  ;  Thompson, 
Brown  &  Co. 

GEOGRAPHY   AND   TRAVELS. 

Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard.     Kirby. 
Brooks  and  Brook  Basins.     Frye.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Common  School  and  Primary  Geographies.   Appleton^s,  Guyot's,  Hall's, 
Harper's,  Lon(jmans\  Maury's,  McNaUy's,  Our  World,  Swinton's. 
Comparative  Geogi-aphy.     Hitter.     American  Book  Co. 
Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travels  ;  0  vols.,  Illus.     Stanford. 
Each  and  All.     Andrews.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
/Earth  and  Man.      Cuyot. 
Essentials  of  Geography.     Fisher.     New  England  Publishing  Co. 

*  Geography  for  Young  Children.     Grant. 
Geographical  Reader.     Scribners.     American  Book  Co. 
Geographical  Reader  Series.     G.  Philip  &  Son  ;  Boston  Sch.  Sujj.  Co. 
Geographical  Reader.    .Tohoiinot.     American  Tiook  Co. 


REFERENCE-BOOKS.  297 

*  Geographical  Studies.     Hitter.     Van  Antwerp,  Hrasii,  ^*i  Vo. 

*  How  to  Teach  (ieogi-aphy.      Carver.     Educational  rublishing  Co. 
Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe.     Yunge.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

Man  and  Nature.    March. 
<*  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography.     King.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

*  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography.     Crocker.     Boston  Sch.  Sup.  Co. 
Our  World  Reader.     Hall.     Ginn  &  Co. 

*  Physical  Geographies.     Geike's,  GuyoVs,  Himnan's,  Juhnston's,  Mrs. 

SomerviUe's,  Maunfs. 

*  Physiogi-aphy.     Huxley. 

Picturesque  Geogi-aphical  Headers.     King.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Pronouncing  Gazetteer  of  the  World.     Lippiucott  &  Co. 

*  Reproduction  of  Geographical  Forms.     Bedway.     1).  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Seven  Little  Sisters.     Andrews.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

Statesman's  Year-Book. 

*  Teacher's  ]\Lamial  of  Geoi^raphy.     Bedway.     l).V.  Heath  &  Co. 

*  The  Child  and  Nature.     Frye.     Ginn  &  Co. 

*  Topics  in  (ieography.     Nichols.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
The  Story  of  Our  Continent.     Shaler.     Ginn  &  Co. 
World  at  Home.     Six  uos.     T.  Nelson  &  Sons. 
World  by  the  Fireside.     Kirby.     T.  Nelson  &  Sons. 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY.  ' 

1 
American  History.     Sheldon.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
American  History  Stories.     Pratt.     Educational  Publisiiiug  Co. 
American  Biography.     Sparks.  ^ 

American  Statesmen  Series.     Houghton,  INHfflin,  ^^-  Co.  j 

Aunt  Charlotte's  Stories  of  American.  History.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
British  Empire,  Elementarj'.     Collier.     T.  Nelson  &  Sons.  ; 

Child's  History  of  England.     Dickens.  '> 

Child's  History  of  England.      Yonge. 

Discoveries  and  Inventions  of  the  19th  Century.     Boutledge.     H.  &  B. 
Epoch  Maps.     Hart.     Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 
First  History  of  tireece.     Seivell.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
First  History  of  Rome.     Seidell.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Footprints  of  Travel.     Ballou.     Ginn  &  Co. 
From  Colony  to  Connnonwealth.      Tiffany.     (Jinn  &  (^o. 
Great  Events  of  History.      Collier.     T.  Nelson  &  Sons.  j 

Historical  Geography.     MacCoun.     Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co.  | 

History  of  American  Politics.     Johnston.     Holt  &  Co. 
History  of  America.     Bryant. 

History  of  the  United  States.     Scudder.     Taintor  Brothers  &  Co. 
History  of  the  United  States.     Eliot. 

History  of  Our  Counti-y.     Bichardson.     Houghton,  Mittiin,  &  Co. 
Leading  Facts  of  American  History.     Montgomery.     Ginn  &  Co.  | 

*  Methods  of  Teaching  and  Studying  History.     Ed.  by  Hall.     1 ).  C. 

Heath  &  Co.  '  * 

North  American  Indians.     Catlin.  \ 

Old  Times  in  the  Colonies.     Coffin.     Harper' &  Bros. 


298  ORGANIZATION. 

Our  Fatherland.     Carver.     Educational  Publishing  Co. 
Pilgrims  and  Puritans.     Tiffany.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Stories  of  American  Historj'.     Dodge.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Stories  of  Massachusetts.     Pratt  &  Lovering.     Ed.  Pub.  Co. 
Story  of  Our  Country.     Monroe.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Ten  Boys  who  lived  on  the  Koad  from  Long  Ago  to  Now.     L.  &  S. 
*  Topics  in  American  History.      Williams.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
War  of  Independence.     Fiske.     Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co. 
Washington  and  his  Country.     Ed.  by  Fiske.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Young  Folks'  Book  of  American  Explorers.     Higginson.     L.  &  S. 
Young  Folks'  Heroes  of  History.      Toivle.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Young  Folks'  History  of  America.     Butterworth.     Estes  &  Lauriat. 
Young  Folks'  History  of  the  United  States.     Higginson.     L.  «&  S. 
Young  Folks'  Library  of  American  History.     Pratt.     Ed.  Pub.  Co. 
Young  People's  History  of  England.     Towle.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

INFORMATION  LESSONS. 

American  Citizen.     Dole.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Child's  Book  of  Nature.     Three  parts.    Hooker.     American  Book  Co. 

Civil  Government.     Martin.     American  Book  Co. 

Civil  Government  of  the  United  States.     Fiske.     II.,  M.,  «&  Co. 

Childhood  of  the  World.     Clodd. 

Commercial  Law.     Clark.     Clark,  Maynard,  &  Co. 

Elementary  Political  Economy.     Meservey.     Thompson,  Brown,  &  Co. 

Elements  of  Civil  Government.     Mowry.     Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co. 

Ethics  for  Young  People.     Everett.     Ginn  &  Co. 

First  Steps  in  Scientific  Knowledge.     Bert.     Lippincott  &  Co. 

Good  Morals.     Gow.     American  Book  Co. 

Glimpses  at  the  Plant  World.     Bergen.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

Government  Class-Book.      Young.     Clark,  Maynard,  &  Co. 

Homes  without  Hands.      Wood. 

Household  Economy.     American  Book  Co. 

How  we  are  Governed.     Dawes.     Int.  Pub.  Co. 

Information  Readers  ;  3  vols.     Boston  School  Supply  Co. 

Lessons  on  Manners.      Wiggin.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

Lessons  on  Practical  Subjects.     Little,  Brown,  &  Co. 

Little  Folks  in  Feathers  and  Fur.     Miller.     Button  &  Co. 

Little  People  of  Asia.     Miller. 

Manual  of  Commerce.     Brovmc. 

Natural  History  Series  of  Readers.     Johonnot.     American  Book  Co. 

Natural  History  Series  of  Readers.      Wood.     Bos.  Sch.  Sup.  Co. 

Natural  History  Stories.     Prang. 

Our  Government.     Macy.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Our  Republic.      True  &  Dickinson.     Leach,  Shewell,  &  Sanborn. 

Politics  for  Young  American.     Nordhoff.     American  Book  Co. 

Popular  Science  Header.     Monteith.     American  Book  Co. 

Primer  of  Ethics.     Comegys.     Ciinn  &  Co. 

Quizzism  and  its  Key.     SoxUhwick. 

Silver  Wings  and  Golden  Scales.     Cassell. 

Star  Land.     Ball.     Ginn  &  Co. 


REFERENCE-BOOKS.  299  , 

i 
Stories  Mother  Nature  told  her  Children.     Andreics.     L.  &  S.  I 

Studies  in  Civil  Government.     Moinry.     Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co. 
Talks  with  ray  Boys.     Moiory. 

The  American  Citizen.     Dole.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  ' 

The  Citizen  and  Neighbor.     Dole.  ' 

Yoiing  Folks'  Catechism  of  Common  Things.     Champlin.     H.  &  Co.  \ 

LANGUAGE.  1 

IXCLUDING    WRITING,   SPELLING,  COMPOSITION,  AND    GRAMMAR. 

Barnes's  Language  Lessons.     American  Book  Co.  i 

Elementary  Lessons  in  English.    Parts  I.  and  II.    Knox.    Giim  &  Co. 

English  Grammar.      Whitney  &  Lockwood.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Essentials  of  P^nglish  Grammar.      Whitney.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Exercises  in  English  Syntax.     Bughee.     C.  AV.  Bardeen. 

Graded  Instructiiin  in  English.     Bright.     American  Book  Co. 

Graded  Spelling  Book.     Harri7igton.     American  Book  Co.  ' 

*  Grammar  Land.     Neshitt.     Holt  &  Co. 

Grammar  for  Common  Schools.     Tweed.     Lee  &.  Shepard. 

Handbook  of  Punctuation.     Bigelow.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

Hoio  to  Talk.     Powell.     Cowperthwait  &  Co. 

How  to  Write.     Powell.     Co\\iDerthwait  &  Co. 

*How  to  Write  Clearly.     Abbott.     Roberts  Brothers. 

♦Language  and  Reading.     Badlam.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Language  Exercises.     Metcnlf  &  Bright.     American  Book  Co. 

Lessons  in  English  ;  2  books.     Hyde.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  j 

Lessons  in  English  Grammar.     Maxwell.    American  Book  Co.  i 

Lessons  in  Language.     Tarbell.     Gmn  &  Co. 

Longmans'  School  Composition.     Salmon.     Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 

Lower  Grade  English.     T.  Nelson  &  Sons. 

New  Graded  Spelling  Book.     Graves.    Ginn  &  Co. 

New  Language  Exercises.    Long.     American  Book  Co. 

New  Word  Analysis.     Swititon.     American  Book  Co.  ^ 

Normal  Coukc  in  Spelling.     Dunton  &  Clark.    Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co. 

School  Composition.     Swinton.     American  Book  Co. 

Selected  Words  for  Spelling  and  Language  Lessons.     A.  Lovell  &  Co. 

Some  Topics  in  I'"nglish  Grammar.     Hinds. 

Studies  in  Nature  and  Language  Lessons.     Smith.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

*  Study  of  Words.     Trench. 

*  The  P^nglish  Language.     Meiklejohn.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  | 
Thought  and  Expression.     Greene.     Cowperthwait  &  Co. 

*  Treatise  on  Punctuation.      Wilson.     American  Book  Co.  j 

*  Verbal  Pitfalls.     Bardeen.     C.  W.  Bardeen.  ' 
Word  by  Word.     Stickney.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Word  Lessons.    Peed.     Clark  &  Maynard. 

MEMORY   LESSONS. 
[See  also  titles  of  other  books  under  "  .Supplementary  Reading."] 

Ballads  and  Lyrics.     Sel.  by  Lodge.     Houghton.  Mifflin,  &  Co.  . 

Five- Miiuite  Declamations.     At.  hy  Fobe.^.     Lee  &  Shepard. 


300                                      ORGANIZATION.  1 

4 

Five-Minute  Recitations.     Ar.  by  Fobes.     Lee  &  Shepard.  j 

Graded  Selections.     Ed.  by  Peaslee.     American  Book  Co.  i 

Little  Gems  of  Literature.     American  Book  Co.  | 

Memory  Gems,  in  prose  and  verse.     Ed.  by  Lambert.     Ginn  &  Co.  ^ 

Memory  Gems  ;  3  vols.  Northend.  American  Book  Co.  j 
One  Hundred  Choice  Selections  ;  several  vols.     P.  Garrett  &  Co. 

Pieces  to  Speak.     Ballard.     American  Book  Co.  ' 

Poetry  for  Children.     Eliot.     Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co.  ' 

Select  Poetry  for  School  and  Home.     Ed.  by  Campbell.     L.  &  S.  I 

Simple  Poems  and  Easy  Rhymes.     Ed.  by  Campbell.     L.  &  S.  j 

OBSERVATION   LESSONS.  j 

Astronomy  by  Observation.     Boicer.     D.  Appleton  &  Co.  'j 

Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps.     Lubbock.  i 

Botany  for  Beginners.     Masters.  \ 

Boys  and  Girls  in  Biology.  Stevenson.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  i 
Butterflies.     Scudder. 

Easy  Experiments  in  Physical  Science.     Cooley.     Scrib.,  Arm.,  &  Co.         ' 

Elementary  Lessons  in  Botany.     Oliver.  | 

*  Exercises  for  the  Improvement  of  the  Senses.  Grant.  L.  &  S.  ; 
Elements  of  Physics.     Gage.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Eairy  Land  of  Flowers.     Pratt.     J^ducational  Publishing  Co.  : 

Fairy  Land  of  Science.     Bxickley.     1).  Appleton  &  Co. 

First  Book  of  Botany.      Youmans.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

First  Book  in  Geology.     Shaler. 

First  Book  of  Zoology.     Morse.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy.     Sheldon  &  Co.  i 

Geological  Excursions.      Winchell.     Griggs  «&  Co.  ;< 

Geological  Story  briefly  Told.     Dana.     American  Book  Co.  | 

*  Guides  for  Science  Teaching.     Y).  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects.     Packard.  i 

How  Plants  Behave.     Gi-ay.     Ivison  &  Co.  '■ 

How  Plants  Grow.     Gray.     Ivison  &  Co.                             •  i 

How  to  find  the  Stars.     Clarke.     Lockwood,  Brooks,  &  Co.  * 

Insects,  How  to  Catch,  etc.,  for  Cabinet.     Manton.     L.  &  S.  ' 

*  Improvement  of  the  Senses.  Grant.  Ed.  by  Small.  L.  &  S.  ' 
Insects  Injurious  to  "\^egetation.     Harris. 

*  Lessons  on  Color,  icith  Color  and  Form  Cards.  Interstate  Pub.  (^o  ' 
Life  and  her  Children.     Buckley.     I).  Appletim  &  Co.  ; 

*  Manual  of  Mineralogy.     Dana.     Wiley  &  Sons.  ' 

*  Natural  History.  ( )bject  Lessons.  Ricks.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  j 
Natural  Ili.story  of  Animals.      Tenny.     Scribners. 

Natural  Philosophy.     Cooley.     Scribners. 

Nature  Study  for  Common  Schools.     Jackman.     Henry  Holt  &  Co. 

(Object  Lessons  of  Botany.      Wood. 

*  Observation  Lessons  in  Primary  Schools.     Hopkins.     L.  &  S.  i 

*  Outline  of  Lessons  in  Botany.  Newell.  Ginn  &  Co.  \ 
Physics.  Hotze.  Central  Publishing  Co.  ] 
Physics.     Stewart.     American  Book  Co. 


REFERENCE-BOOKS.  301  j 

*  Primary  Object  Lessons.  Calkins.  Aniericau  Book  Co.  ^ 
Science  rrimers.  American  Book  Co.  i 
Short  Course  in  Astronomy.  Kiddle.  American  Book  Co.  \ 
Stories  of  Industry.  Chase  tfe  Clow.  Educational  Publisliing  Co.  i 
Tenants  of  an  <  )ld  Orchard.  McCoo/a  i 
The  Earth  in  Space.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  i 

*  Thirty-Six  Object  Lessons.  Clapp.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  ■ 
Winners  in  Life's  Race.  Buckley.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  , 
Young  Folks'  Astronomy.  Champlin.  H.  Holt  &  Co.  \ 
Zoology.     Colton.     I).  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

Various  text-books  published  by  American  Book  Co.  ;  Clark,  May- 

nard,  &  Co.  ;  Ginn  &  Co.  ;  Henry  Holt  &  Co.  ;  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  ;  , 

Leach,  Shewell,  &  Sanborn  ;  Lee  &  Shepard  ;   Lippincott  &  Co.  ;  I 

Macmillan  &  Co.  ;  Porter  &  Coates  ;  Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co.  \ 

*  Foundation  of  Death.      Gustafson.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Health  Notes  for  Students.      Wilder.     Putnam  &  Sons.  ) 

History  of  a  Mouthful  of  Bread.     3Ince.  \ 

How  to  get  Strong.     Bluikie. 

*  School  Hygiene.     Xeiosholme.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

*  School  Hygiene.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Somid  Bodies  for  Boys  and  Girls.     Blaikie. 
Servants  of  the  Stomach.     Mace- 

*  Skeleton  Lessons  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene.    Guernsey.    Interstate 

.  Publishing  Co.  \ 

Temperance  Physiologj'.     American  Book  Co.  j 

*  Temperance  Teachings  of  Science.     Palmer.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
The  Tobacco  Problem.     Lander.     Cupples,  L'pham,  &  Co. 

i 

SUPPLEMENTARY   READING.  , 

[Titles  of  other  books  suitable  for  sigbt-reading  will  be  fouod  under  "  Geography  < 

and  Travels,"  "  History  and  Biography,"  and  "  Informatiou  Lessons."]  ' 

Age  of  Fable.     Buljinch.  ' 

A.  B.  C.  Reader.  For  first  half-year.  Lowell  &  Co.  i 
American  and  British  Authors.     Blaisdel.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

American  Prose  and  Poetiy  ;  2  vols.     Ed.  by  Scudder.     H.,  M.,  &  Co.  ; 

Black  Beauty.     Seicell.  ' 
Blue  Poetry  Book.     Ed.  by  Lang.     Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 
Book  of  Fables.     Ed.  by  Scudder.     Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co. 
Choice  Readings.     Ed.  by  Cole.     Taintor  Brothers  &  Co. 

Classics  for  Children  ;  ;30  vols.     Consisting  of  works  of  be.st  \vriters.  j 

(iinn  &  Co.  j 

From  Blackboard  to  Books.     Calkins.     I.,  B.,  T.,  &  Co.  I 

Graded  Reading  Books  publLshed  by  American  Book  Co.  ;  (iinn  &  Co.  ;  j 

D.  C.   Heath  &  Co.  ;    Sheldon  &  Co.  ;    Silver,  Burdett.   &,  Co.  ;  | 

Taintor  Brothers  &  Co.  ;  University  Publishing  Co.  ' 
Grandfather's  Chair.     Hawthorne. 


302  ORGANIZATION. 

Modern  Classics  ;  34  vols.     Consisting  of  works  from  eminent  Amer- 
ican and  European  writers.     Hougliton,  Mifflin,  &  Co. 
Nature  Readers.      Wright.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Open  Sesame  ;  3  vols.     Ed.  by  Bellamy  &  Goodwin.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Palgrave's  Children's  Treasury  of  English  Song.     Macmillan  &  Co. 
Palgrave's  Golden  Treasury.     Ed.  by  Kirk.     Lippincott  &  Co. 
Parables  from  Nature.     Gatty.     Macmillan  &  Co. 
Philbrick's  Speakers.     Thompson,  Brown,  &  Co. 

*  Preparing  to  Read.     Spear.     New  England  Publishing  Co. 
Riverside  Literatuii  Series.     Pamphlets  containing  selections  from  the 

best  American  and  English  authors.     Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co. 
Selections  from  American  Authors.    Ed.  by  Eliot.    Tamtor  Bros.  &  Co. 
Six  Stories  from  Arabian  Nights.     Ed.  by  Eliot.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Stories  for  Home  and  School.     Deioey.     Educational  Publishing  Co. 
Supplementary  Reading.     Parker  &  Marvel.     L.,  S.,  &  S. 
Tales  from  Shakespeare.     Lamb. 
Tanglewood  Tales.     Haiothorne. 

The  Children's  Garland.     Sel.  by  Patmore.     Macmillan  &  Co. 
Wonder  Book.     Hawthorne. 

Young  Folks'  Book  of  Poetry.     Camphell.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Young  Folks'  Library  ;  several  vols.     Ed.  by  Dunton.     S.,  B.,  &  Co. 

GENERAL   AND   MISCELLANEOUS. 

Authors'  Birthdays.     Stanley.     New  England  Publishing  Co. 

Book  of  Days.     Chambers. 

Calisthenic  Songs.     Parsons.     American  Book  Co. 

Cyclopaedias.  Appleton's  (16  vols.)  ;  Chambers's  (10  vols,  or  5  vols.)  ; 
Johnson^ s  (8  vols,  or  2  vols.)  ;   Young  Folks  (3  vols.). 

Cyclopaedia  of  English  Literature.     Chambers. 

Dictionaries.      Webster''s  and  \Vorcester''s. 

English  Synonyms.     Soule.     Little,  Brown,  &  Co. 

Eveiy  Day  Business.     Emery.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

Excellent  Quotations  for  Home  and  School.     Hoitt.     L.  &  S. 

First  and  Second  Lessons  in  Geometry.     Hill. 

First  Weeks  in  School.     Stickney  &  Peabody.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Gymnastics.     Ling  System.     Enebuske.     Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co. 

Handbook  of  Light  Gymnastics.     Hunt.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

Handbooks  of  English  Literature.  Collier's;  Hav:thorne's ;  Long- 
mans'' ;   Underwood'' s. 

Historic  Note  Book.     Brewer.     Lippincott  &  Co. 

Industrial  Education  in  Public  Schools.     Straight.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Inventional  Geometry.     Spencer.     American  Book  Co. 

*  Kindergarten  Stories  and  Morning  Talks.    Ed.  by  Wiltse.    Ginn  &  Co. 

*  Manuals  and  Teachers'  Guides  for  Drawing-Books. 

Notes  of  Lessons  on  Moral  Subjects.     Hackwood.     T.  Nelson  &  Sons. 
Political  Economy.      Walker. 

*  Power  and  Autiiority  of  School  Officers. 

Primary  Manual  Training.     Cutler.     Educational  Publishing  Co. 
Reader's  Handbook.     BrcAcer.     Lippincott  &  Co. 


REFERENCE-BOOKS.  303 

School  Amusements.     Root.  , 

School  Studies  in  Words.     Gilbert.     Leach,  Shewell,  &  Sanborn. 
Statutes  of  the  State. 

Swedish  System  oi  Gymnastics.     Posse.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Three  Thousand  Words.     Handbook  of  Pronunciation.     L.  &  S. 
Young  Folks'  Cyclopaedia ;  2  vols.     Champlin.     Holt  &  Co. 

PROFESSIONAL   BOOKS   FOR  TEACHERS. 

Apperception.     Ruoper.     C.  W.  Eardeen. 
Application  of  Psychology  to  Teaching.     Hailmann.     Small. 
Art  of  School  Management.     Baldwin.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Autobiography  of  Frobel.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
Bibliography  of  Education.     Hall.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Child  and  Child-Nature.     Marenholtz- BUloio.     C.  AV.  Bardeen. 
Chips  from  a  Teacher's  Workshop.     Klemm.     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Common  School  Education.     Currie. 

Cyclopedia  of  Education.     Sonnenschein.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
Education.     Herbert  Spencer. 
Educational  Reformers.      Quick. 
Education  by  doing.     Johnson.     E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 
Elements  of  Psychologj-.     Hill.     Sheldon  &  Co. 
Essentials  of  Method.     De  Garmo.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
First  Three  Years  of  Childhood.     Perez.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
Habit  in  Education.     Radestock.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Historj'  of  Pedagogj'.     Compaijre.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
How  to  Secure  Attention.     Hughes.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
Infant  School  Education.     Currie. 

International  Education  Series  ;  14  vols.     Ed.  by  Harris.     T>.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 
John  Amos  Comenius.     Laurie. 

Lectures  on  Education.     Hailmann.     Van  Antwerp,  Bragg,  &  Co. 
Lectures  on  Pedagogj'.     Payne.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Lectures  on  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching.     Payne. 
Lectures  on  Teaching.     Fitch. 

J^ife  and  Work  of  Pestalozzi.     Krilsi.     American  Book  Co. 
Manuals  for  Teachers  ;  5  vols.     Eldridge  Brothers. 
Methods  of  Instruction.      Wickersham. 
Mind  Studies  for  Teachers.     Allen.     E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 
Mistakes  in  Teaching.     Hughes.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
On  Teaching.      Caldericood. 
Outline  Study  of  Man.     Hopkins. 

Pestalozzi.     His  Aim  and  Work.     De  Guimps.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
Philosophy  of  Education.      Tate.    .C  W.  Bardeen. 
Primary  Helps.     Hailmann.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching.     Johonnot.     Yi.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Province  of  Methods.     Hoose.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
Prussian  Schools.     Parsons.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 
Reminiscences  of  Frobel.      Von  Buloio.     Lee  »&  Shepard. 
Roger  Ascham  and  Arnold.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 


304  ORGAXIZATION. 

School  Management.     Landon. 

School-room  Classics  ;  several  pamphlets.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 

School-room  Guide.     De  Graff.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 

Schools  of  Germany.     Methods  and  Organization.     Prince.     L.  &  S. 

Some  Thouglrts  on  Education.     Locke. 

Studies  in  Pedagogy,     ^f organ.     Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co. 

Teachers'  Handbook  of  Psychology.     Sully. 

The  Kindercjarten  and  the  School.     Milton  Bradley  &  Co. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.     Page.     American  Book  Co. 

The  Teacher's  Manual.     Orcutt.     Thompson,  Brown,  «&  Co. 

True  Order  of  Studies.     Hill. 

PROFESSIONAL  PERIODICALS   FOR  TEACHERS. 

American  Journal  of  Education.     St.  Louis,  Mo. 

American  Teacher.     Monthly.     Boston,  Mass. 

Central  School  Journal.     Monthly.     Keokuk,  Iowa. 

Colorado  School  Journal.     Monthly.     Denver,  Col. 

Common  School  Education  and  Teachers'  World.     New  York. 

Education.     Monthly.     Boston,  Mass. 

Educational  Courant.     Monthly.     Louisville,  Ky. 

Educational  Journal.     Semi-monthly.     Toronto,  Canada. 

Educational  Record.     Monthly.     Montreal,  Canada. 

Educational  Review.     St.  Jolms,  N.  B. 

Educational  Review.     New  York. 

Intelligence.     Monthly.     Chicago,  111. 

Journal  of  Pedagogy.     Dunkirk,  N.  Y. 

Missouri  School  Journal.     Jefferson  City,  Mo. 

New  England  Journal  of  Education.     Weekly.    Boston,  Mass. 

Ohio  Educational  Monthly.     Akron,  O. 

Pacific  Educational  Journal.     San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Pemisylvania  School  Journal.     Monthly.     Lancaster. 

Popular  Educator.     Monthly.     Boston,  Mass. 

Public  School  Journal.     Bloomington,  111. 

School  and  College.     Monthly.     Boston,  Mass. 

School  Bulletin.     Monthly.     Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

School  Education.     Monthly.     Minneapolis,  Minn. 

School  Journal.      \Veekly.     New  York. 

School  Moderator.     Semi-monthly.     Lansing,  Mich. 

Southern  School  Journal.     Little  Rock,  Ark. 

Southwestern  Journal  of  Education.     Monthly.     Nashville,  Tenn 

Teacher's  Institute.     Monthly.     New  York. 

Texas  Journal  nf  Education.     Galveston,  Tex. 

The  Primary  School.     New  York.     * 

'I'lie  Teacher.     Montlily.     New  York. 

Tlie  Teachers'  Profession.     Monthly.     New  York. 

\'irginia  Educational  Journal.     Richmond,  Ya. 

Western  School  Journal.     .Monthly.     Topeka,  Kan. 

Wisconsin  Journal  of  Education.     MadLson,  Wis. 


CLASSIFICATION.  305 

CLASSIFICATION. 

The  importance  of  bringing  together  pupils  of  nearly- 
equal  attainments  into  one  class,  in  each  of  the  sub- 
jects taught,  is  recognized  by  all.  The  practical  ques- 
tion for  teachers  to  consider  is,  How  shall  the  classifica- 
tion be  made  so  as  to  secure  the  greatest  good  to  the 
greatest  number,  and  at  the  same  time  encourage  to 
the  greatest  extent,  or  rather  discourage  to  the  least 
extent,  the  natural  propensities  and  activities  of  each 
individual? 

To  accomplish  these  ends,  it  is  evident  that  those 
only  who  know  the  needs,  capacities,  and  acquirements 
of  the  ]:)upils  should  make  the  classification.  The  result 
of  a  single  examination,  or  of  any  number  of  examina- 
tions, alone  should  not  determine  the  class  into  which 
pupils  shall  go.  The  age,  health,  habits,  and  purposes 
of  the  pupil  should  be  considered  in  determining  his 
place,  the  only  question  being.  Where  can  the  pupil  do 
most  for  himself? 

Graded  Schools.  —  A  close  classification  would  make 
all  the  pupils  of  a  school  recite  in  the  same  classes  in 
all  studies.  There  are  certainly  advantages  in  this  plan ; 
but  it  is  a  question  whether  it  may  not  be  well  some- 
times to  allow  pupils  to  recite  in  a  higher  or  lower  class 
in  one  or  two  studies.  For  example,  a  boy  is  by  nature 
or  by  extra  study  farther  advanced  in  arithmetic  than 
in  reading  and  geography.  If  he  has  but  a  limited  time 
to  attend  school,  it  would  seem  to  be  right  to  have  him 
recite  with  one  class  in  reading  and  geography,  and 
with  another  class  in  arithmetic. 

Again,  there  are  occasionally  ])Upils  who,  by  reason 


306  ORGANIZATION. 

of  weakness  or  ill  health,  cannot  take  all  the  studies 
taught  in  the  school.  Such  pupils  should  be  allowed 
to  omit  one  or  more  of  the  regular  studies,  and  even 
be  excused  from  school  attendance,  except  when  their 
classes  are  reciting. 

There  is  of  course  danger  in  such  irregularity  of 
classification,  and  the  number  of  cases  must  be 
limited ;  but  there  are  instances  when  it  is  not  only 
justifiable,  but  necessary  for  the  best  interests  of  the 
pupils. 

Basis  of  Classification.  —  The  rights  of  active  and 
bright-minded  pupils  should  be  protected,  no  less  than 
those  of  the  weak  and  dull.  Inequalities  both  in  the 
abilities  of  pupils,  and  in  the  amount  accomplished, 
should  be  recognized  in  classifying,  as  well  as  in 
arranging  the  course  of  studies  and  conducting  the 
recitation.  The  average  abilities  and  attainments,  there- 
fore, should  be  the  basis  of  classification,  so  far  as  the 
amount  of  work  required  is  concerned.  Where  close 
classification  is  required,  as  it  should  be  required  gen- 
erally in  graded  schools,  it  is  customary  to  take  read- 
ing as  the  basis  in  the  primary  schools,  and  arithmetic 
in  the  higher  grades. 

iSize  of  Classes.  —  The  mistake  should  not  be  made 
of  making  the  classes  too  large.  The  number  should 
be  sufficiently  small  for  the  teacher  to  reach  every 
individual  member,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  knowing 
the  peculiarities  of  each  pu[)il,  and  of  adapting  the 
teaching  and  instruction  to  the  needs  of  each.  Thirty 
pupils  in  primary  grades,  and  forty  in  grammar  grades, 
are  quite  as  many  as  one  teacher  can  be  expected  to 
teach,  and  teach  well.     A  less  number  would  doubtless 


CLASSIFICATION.  307 

be  better  for  individual  pupils,  while  more  would  tend 
to  force  the  teacher  into  mechanical  ways  of  teaching, 
making  one  pupil  do  the  same  work  as  every  other  one, 
and  in  precisely  the  same  way. 

Divisions.  —  If  there  is  but  one  grade  in  a  room,  it 
should  be  divided  into  two  divisions,  so  as  to  allow 
time  for  one  division  to  study  while  the  other  is  recit- 
ing. There  are  several  reasons  why  a  school  of  thirty 
or  forty  should  not  recite  together  in  arithmetic,  read- 
ing, or  geography.  First,  as  has  been  intimated,  the 
wants  of  individual  pupils  are  not  attended  to  as  they 
should  be.  Secondly,  the  time  for  independent  study 
and  reflection,  is  exceedingly  limited,  and  even  the  brief 
time  for  study  is  frequently  interrupted  by  remarks  and 
explanations  from  the  teacher. 

Intervals  between  Classes.  —  In  most  graded  schools 
at  the  present  time,  the  classes  are  one  year  apart ;  that 
is,  the  gradation  is  so  made  as  to  render  a  readjustment, 
or  "promotion,"  necessary  only  once  a  year.  This  plan 
of  grading  may  be  necessary  in  some  places  and  under 
some  circumstances,  but  where  there  is  a  sufficient 
number  of  pupils,  the  intervals  should  be  shorter  and 
the  promotions  more  frequent.  The  aim  should  be  to 
have  the  work  adjusted  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
wants  and  capacity  of  each  pupil.  If  this  aim  is  a  true 
one,  it  is  manifest  that  the  shorter  the  interval  between 
the  classes,  the  better,  provided  of  course  the  transfer 
of  pupils  from  one  grade  to  another  does  not  cause  too 
great  interruption.  An  interval  of  only  ten  weeks,  or 
one-fourth  of  a  year,  has  been  tried  with  success  in  some 
places.  In  other  places  the  interval  is  twenty  weeks,  or 
half  of  a  year.     This  plan  is  entirely  feasible  in  most 


308  ORGANIZATION. 

of  our  cities  and  large  towns,  and  its  adoption  would  do 
much  to  overcome  the  faults  of  the  system  of  yearly 
promotions.  In  writing,  drawing,  and  other  general 
exercises,  all  can  work  together ;  but  in  all  other  studies 
the  divisions  will  recite  separately,  one  division  studying 
wlrile  the  other  is  reciting.  In  this  way  one  great  fault 
of  too  much  help  and  recitation  is  avoided,  and  the 
benefits  of  independent  work  assured.  Concentration 
and  originality  are  gained  when  pupils  are  re(;[uired  to 
work  independently  and  alone  a  portion  of  the  time,  to 
a  degree  far  greater  than  when  much  time  is  spent  in 
recitation,  and  when  too  much  assistance  is  given  in 
study.  The  advantage  of  semi-annual  promotions  is 
most  clearly  seen  in  classifying  new  pupils  or  those  who 
have  been  absent  a  part  of  the  year.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that,  under  the  system  of  yearly  promotions,  pupils 
are  frequently  obliged  to  go  over  once  or  twice  work 
which  has  been  done  before,  and  in  some  cases  pupils, 
notably  those  who  work  a  part  of  the  year  in  the  factory, 
do  not  get  beyond  the  merest  rudiments  before  they  are 
fourteen  years  of  age.  Under  the  other  system,  these 
faults  are  largely  overcome,  and  pupils  are  much  bet- 
ter accommodated.  Moreover,  if  a  pupil  is  not  well 
enough  to  do  the  whole  work  of  the  class,  he  may  do  a 
portion  of  it  and  lose  but  six  months  instead  of  a  year, 
—  time  which  he  may  be  able  to  gain  later  in  the  course. 
Many  a  pupil  under  tlie  system  of  annual  promotions, 
discouraged  by  the  loss  of  several  months,  leaves  school 
long  before  he  otherwise  would. 

But  the  feature  of  shorter  intervals  between  classes 
commends  itself  most  strongly  in  the  gi-eater  fncility 
with  which    the   work   of    pupils   may  be    adapted   to 


CLASSIFICATION.  309 

their  capacity  and  strength.  A  system  of  classifi- 
cation which  practically  permits  no  difference  in  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  done  by  pupils,  but  forces  dull 
pupils  beyond  their  strength  and  keeps  back  bright 
ones,  is  harmful  alike  to  both  classes.  When  only  five 
months'  work  lies  ahead  of  a  bright  and  ambitious 
pupil,  it  may  easily  be  overcome,  especially  when  the 
plan  of  study  is  graded  to  the  average  capacity  only  of 
a  class.  Many  pupils  will  be  able  to  work  into  higher 
divisions,  who  otherwise  would  form  habits  of  idleness 
and  distaste  of  study  in  being  obliged  to  do  only  the 
required  work  of  less  fortunate  pupils.  To  avoid  the 
danger  of  undue  pressure,  the  parents  in  every  case 
should  be  notified,  and  the  child  be  given  extra  work 
only  by  their  consent.  The  mistake  of  slighting  impor- 
tant parts  of  the  course  is  also  avoided  by  having  the 
pupil  work  into  the  higher  division  gradually,  —  an 
additional  argument  for  having  two  divisions  in  a  room. 

Partially  Graded  Schools.  —  In  some  places  the  con- 
ditions require  all  the  pupils  of  a  neighborhood  to  be 
placed  in  two  or  three  rooms.  When  this  is  the  case, 
it  is  necessary  to  make  the  intervals  between  the  classes 
one  year  or  more,  and  to  have  three  or  four  classes  in 
each  room.  With  such  an  arrangement  of  classes  it 
is  not  diflicult  to  follow  the  plan  as  outlined  in  the 
graded  course,  making  a  careful  selection  of  work 
assigned  for  general  exercises. 

Ungraded  Schools.  —  The  classification  of  ungraded 
schools  will  depend  much  upon  circumstances.  If  there 
are  two  teachers  (as  there  should  be  if  there  are  more 
than  twenty-five  pui)ils),  more  minute  classification  may 
be  made  than  if  there  is  only  one.  In  sonie  ungraded 
schools  the   older  pupils  predominate ;    in   others,  the 


310  ORGANIZATION. 

younger.  In  some  places  the  older  pupils  are  taken 
from  the  ungraded  district  schools  and  placed  in  a  cen- 
tral grammar  or  high  school ;  in  other  places  no  higher 
school  of  any  kind  supplements  the  work  of  the  un- 
graded school.  No  exact  rule,  therefore,  for  classifying 
ungraded  schools  can  be  laid  down.  But  in  general  it 
may  be  said  that  no  close  classification  should  be  at- 
tempted in  ungraded  schools,  but  that  every  pupil 
should  recite  in  the  class  for  which  he  is  best  fitted, 
whatever  the  subject  may  be.  For  instance,  a  pupil 
may  be  in  the  first  class  in  arithmetic  and  the  second  in 
reading ;  while  another  pupil  may  be  in  the  second  class 
in  arithmetic  and  the  first  in  reading.  Again,  there 
should  be  as  few  classes  as  possible  consistent  with  the 
good  of  all.  The  false  pride  of  pupils  and  the  igno- 
rance of  parents  as  to  what  is  best  for  their  children 
should  not  prevent  the  teacher  from  doing  his  duty  in 
this  regard.  Too  often  the  pupil  and  parent  alike  meas- 
ure progress  in  education  by  the  number  of  pages  of 
the  book  that  are  "gone  over."  And  too  often,  also, 
there  is  some  disgrace  attached  to  a  pupil  who  is  put 
into  another  class.  All  of  these  hindrances  to  good 
classification  must  be  met  and  overcome  in  one  way 
or  another.  The  parents  may  be  made  to  see  that  the 
older  pupils  should  recite  only  two  or  three  times  a 
week  in  some  studies,  and  that  there  may  be  a  less 
minute  classification  in  some  studies  than  in  others. 
In  geography,  for  example,  they  may  see  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  one  country  does  not  depend  upon  a  knowledge 
of  another,  and  that  drill  in  one  part  of  the  spelling- 
book  may  be  as  useful  as  drill  in  another  part.  The 
following  classification  might  be  made  in  many  ungraded 
schools,  consisting  of  pupils  from  five  to  fifteen  years  of 


CLASSIFICATION.  311 

age :  four  classes  in  reading,  including  one  class  in  the 
reading  of  history;  five  classes  in  arithmetic;  two  classes 
in  geograpliy,  besides  the  class  of  younger  pupils  who 
are  reciting  orally  lessons  in  home  geography ;  four 
classes  in  spelling,  two  of  which  may  be  heard  at  the 
same  time;  one  class  in  physiology,  —  the  rest  to  be 
heard  orally ;  one  class  in  history ;  one  class  in  English 
grammar ;  and  one  in  language.  The  singing,  drawing, 
and  observation  lessons  may  be  taught  as  general  exer- 
cises to  all  the  pupils  at  once. 

It  may  not  be  well  for  a  new  teacher  to  make  such  a 
classification  at  once,  nor  carry  out  all  at  once  the  plan 
of  hearing  the  older  pupils  recite  on  alternate  days.  It 
might  be  better  for  him  to  adopt  for  a  time  the  classifica- 
tion which  he  finds,  in  the  hope  that  he  may  gradually 
change  it  for  the  better. 

Daily  Programme  of  Recitations  and  Study.  —  The 
good  teacher  always  has,  either  in  mind  or  on  paper, 
a  carefully  prepared  programme  in  which  the  times  and 
subjects  of  recitation  and  study  are  well  defined.  With- 
out a  definite  plan  of  work,  there  is  danger  of  unequal 
attention  being  given  to  the  subjects,  and  of  disturbance 
in  the  preparation  of  lessons.  To  make  a  programme 
in  which  a  proper  share  of  time  is  given  to  recitation 
and  to  study,  and  in  which  the  time  allotted  to  each  sub- 
ject is  commensurate  with  the  importance  of  that  sub- 
ject, is  no  easy  task.  It  is  obvious  that  no  one  programme 
would  be  suited  to  all  schools,  or  even  to  all  schools  of 
the  same  kind  and  grade,  so  widely  dissimilar  are  the 
conditions  in  different  schools,  and  even  in  the  same 
school  at  different  times.  The  following  programmes, 
which  were  found  in  actual  operation,  may  be  sugges- 
tive to  teachers :  — • 


312  OKGANIZATIOlsr. 

VI.     GRAMMAR   GRADE.— Two  Divisions. 


TIME. 

RECITATIOX. 

STUDY. 

Begin. 

Length. 

A  DrvisiON. 

B  Division. 

A.M. 

9  00 

MIN. 

5 

15 

Devotional  Exercise 
Singing 

9  05 

9.20 

20 

20 

General  Exercise 
Aritlimetic.    A. 

9  40 

Arithmetic 

10.00 

10 
20 

Arithmetic.   A.  &  B. 
B. 

10  10 

Reading 

10.30 
10.45 

15 
20 

Recess. 
Reading.    A. 

— 

Reading 

1105 

20 
35 

30 
30 

Reading.   B. 
Language.   A.  &  B. 

Intei-mission. 
Writing  or  Drawing.  A.  &  B. 
Geog.  &  Sight-Reading.  A. 

Geography 

11.25 
12.00 

P.M. 

1.30 
2.00 

Geography 

2.30 

30 
15 

Geog.  &  Sight-Reading.  B. 
Recess. 

Spelling 

3.00 

— 

3.15 

15 
30 

Spelling.   A.  &  B. 
Gen'l  Exercise  and  Study 

3.30 

— 

— 

4.00 

— 

Dismission. 

— 

— 

Friday.    Physiology,  Observation  Lessons,  Memory  Lesions,  etc* 


DAILY   i'KOGKAMME. 


313 


PRIMARY  SCHOOL.  — Four  Grades. 
Thirty-nine  pupils  from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age. 


TIME. 

RECITATIOX. 

BUSY-WORK  AND  STUDY. 

3 

o 

Grade  I. 

(Lowest.) 

Grabe  II. 

Grade  UI. 

Grade  IV, 

A.M. 

9.00 
9.05 

MIN. 
5 

5 

Devotional  Exer. 
Mem.  Gems  (all) 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9.10 
9.15 

5 
15 

Music  (all) 
Writing  (all) 

I           

— 

— 

9  30 

30 
15 

I.&.  11.  Reading 
III.  Number 

Number 

Number 

10.00 

Slate  and 

Number 

Number 

Splints 

10  15 

15 
15 

I.  Number 
Recess. 

Number  i  Writiiio- 

10.30 

— 

10.45 
10.55 

10     General  Exercise 
15     IV.  Number 

Slate-w'k 

Number 

Reading 

— 

11.10 

10 
15 

II.  Number 

III.  Reading 

Slate-w'k 
Copying 

Reading 

Language 

11.20 

Language 

11.35 

15 

IV.  Geography 
IV.  Sp.  &  Lang. 

Designs 
Splints 

Language 
Language 

Language 
Language 

11.501  10 

IL'.OO 

15 
15 

Intermissio?). 

— 

— 

— 

— 

P.M. 

1.30 
1.45 

Music  (all) 
I.  Reading 

— 

Reading 

Reading 

Reading 

2.00 

10 
15 

II.  Reading 

III.  Sp.  &  Lang. 

Busy-w'k 
Busy-w'k 

Reading 

Reading 
Geogr'y 

2.10 

Busy-w'k 

2.:j5 
2.30 

5 
15 

Recess. 
IV.  Reading 

Busy-w'k 

Busy-w'k 

Language 

— 

2.45 

15 
30 

IV.  Drawing 
Obs.L.&L'g.(all) 

Busy-w'k 

Busy-w'k 

Language 

3.00 

— 

3.30 !  — 

Dismission. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Tuesdai/  A.M.     11-12.     Sewing  Teacher. 

Monday.     Once  in  two  weeks.     9.30-10.     Music  Teacher. 

Friday  P.M.     3-3.30.     Good  time. 


314 


ORGANIZATION. 


PRIMARY   AND   INTERMEDIATE   SCHOOL. 

Twenty-five  pupils,  ranging  from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age.  The 
youngest  pupils  are  beginners,  and  the  most  advanced  pupils  are 
studying  Fractions  and  reading  in  the  Fourth  Reader.  There  are  four 
classes  in  most  subjects. 


TIME. 

RECITATION. 

BUSY-WORK  AND  STUDY. 

o 

CQ 

n 

Grade  I. 

(Lowest.) 

Grade  II. 

Grade  III. 

Grade  IV. 

A.M. 

9  00 

MIN. 
15 

20 

Dev. Ex. &  Singing 
Writing  (all) 

915 



9  35 

10 
15 

I.  Reading 

II.  Read.  &  Spell. 

Arithme'e 

Arithme'e 
Arithme'e 

Language 
Arithme'e 

9  45 

Copying 

10  00 

20 
15 

III.  Arithmetic 

Kecess. 

Splints  &  Arithme'n 

Arithme'e 

10.20 

Pegs 

_ 

_ 

10  35 

20 
15 

IV.  Arithmetic 
I.  &  II.  Arithmetic 

Cop'g.etc. 

Language 

Geogra'y 
Geogra'y 

10  55 

Geogra'y 

11  10 

10 
20 

Gymnastics 
III.  Geography 

Dismissed 

10  20 

Language 

Geogra'y 

10  40 

20 

IV.  Geography 

— 

R'g&Sp'g 

Language 

12.00 

60 

Intermission. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

P.M. 

1  00 

20 

I.  Read.  &  Numb. 

R'g&Lan. 

Language 

Language 

1  20 

20 

25 

II.  Read.  &  Lang. 

III.  &  IV.  Lang. 

Busy-w'k 
Busy-w'k 

R'g&Sp'g 

Language- 

1  40 

Copying 

2.05 
2  10 

5 
10 

Gymnastics 
Ment.Arith.  (all) 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2  20 

15 
10 

I.&II.  Obs.Less. 
Becess. 

R'g&Sp'g 

R'g&Sp'g 

2.35 

Dismissed 

— 

2  45 

25 
25 

III.  Read.  &  Spell. 

IV.  Read.  &  Spell. 

— 

Language 
Reading 

R'g&Sp'g 

3  10 

Arithme'e 

3  35 

15 
10 

Obs.  Less,  (all) 
Gen.  Exer.  (all) 

— 

3  50 

DAILY  PROGRAMME.  315 


UNGRADED  SCHOOL. 

Thirtj'-five  pupils  from  five  to  sixteen  years  of  age. 
[One  afternoon  each  week  given  to  general  exercises.] 
Time.  — Min. 

5.  Devotional  Exercise. 

10.  Singing. 

15.  First  Reader  and  Xuniber. 

15.  Second  Reader. 

20.  I.  Arithmetic. 

15.  IV.  Arithmetic. 

15.  Recess  or  Gymnastics. 

15.  III.  Arithmetic. 

15.  II.  Arithmetic. 

15.  I.  and  II.  Spelling. 

20.  Primary  and  Intermediate  Language. 

20.  General  Exercise  (Observation  Lesson). 

INTERMISSION. 

15.  Grammar. 

15.  First  Reader  and  Number. 

15.  Second  Reader. 

20.  Third  Reader. 

25.  Writing  or  Drawing. 

15.  Recess  or  Gymnastics. 

15.  I.  Geography  or  History. 

15.  II.  Geography. 

20.  Fourth  Reader. 

25.  General  Exercise. 


316  ORGANIZATION. 

Records  and  Reports.  —  The  time  and  strength  of 
the  teacher  should  be  given  to  no  work  which  does  not 
directly  or  indirectly  conduce  to  the  welfare  of  the 
school.  No  records  for  mere  show  should  be  kept,  nor 
reports  and  averages  be  made  out  which  appeal  to  the 
pride  of  any  one,  or  which  serve  as  an  artificial  stimu- 
lant to  study. 

Statistics  of  the  age  and  attendance  of  pupils  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  requirements  of  the  State  should  be 
kept,  and  such  records  as  will  enable  the  teacher  to  note 
the  progress  of  his  pupils  and  to  aid  him  in  placing  them 
where  they  will  do  the  most  for  themselves. 

For  the  purpose  of  informing  the  parents  of  the 
character  of  their  children's  work  and  of  securing:  their 
co-operation,  blanks  should  be  filled  out  either  periodi- 
cally or  when  occasion  requires.  It  is  well  for  parents 
to  receive  a  report  as  often  as  once  a  month.  This 
report  should  indicate  in  a  general  way  how  the  pupil 
is  doing  in  each  branch  of  study  and  what  his  conduct 
is.  It  should  not  contain  the  standing  of  the  pupil 
with  reference  to  others  in  his  class,  nor  is  it  necessary 
to  indicate  fine  distinctions,  such  as  would  be  made  by 
per  cent  marks.  All  that  it  is  necessary  to  give  in  the 
report  is  what  the  teacher  would  give  in  reply  to  the 
parents'  questions :  How  is  my  child  doing  in  each 
branch  of  study?  What  is  his  behavior?  What  is  his 
attendance?  The  following  report  for  granmiar-school 
pupils  is  suggested.  It  should  be  upon  a  card  six  or 
seven  inches  long  and  four  or  five  inches  wide.  The 
months  can  be  indicated  to  suit  the  circumstances. 


RECORDS   AND   llEi'OKTS. 


317 


PUBLIC   SCHOOLS. 


Report  of. 


.School.    Class. 


For  the 

Month 

of 

q: 

_c 

a. 
(/5 

1 
< 

bO 

c 

bb 

c 

t>b 

c 

5 

Q 

5^ 

CL 
(0 

s 

(3 

i 

3 
•D 

O 

O 

c 

lU 

-a 
a 

Q 

•a 

£ 

Signature  of 
Parent  or  Guardian. 

SEPT. 

OCT. 



— 

NOV. 

DEC. 

JAN. 

To  the  Parent  or  Guardian: 

A  means  Excellent ;   B,  Good  ;  C,  Fair  ;   D,  Poor  ;   E,  Very  Poor. 

If  the  Scliolarship  or  Deportment  continues  to  be  poor,  will  you 
please  call  at  the  schoolroom  for  further  particulars,  especially  if 
poor  health  or  any  other  circumstance  prevents  h. . . .  from  doing 
more  work.  Irregularity  of  attendance  greatly  interferes  with  the 
progress  of  the  pupil,  and  may  oblige  h . . . .  to  repeat  the  work  of  a 
term  or  year.  You  arc  cordially  invited  to  visit  the  school  at  any 
time. 

Please  sign  and  return  as  soon  as  possible. 


Teacher. 


318  ORGANIZATION,   ETC. 

School, 

, 188.... 

M_ 

You  will  see  by 

Monthly  Report  that is  not  doing  thoroughly 

the  work  of  the  School.     Thus  far  this  term  neither 
the  written  examinatiojv   nor   daily   work   indicate 

that  it  will  be  best  for  to  go  into  a  higher 

division  next ,  but  that  it  irvay  be 

necessary  to  review  the  present  studies  another  term. 

If,  however,  you  think  it  possible  or  best  for  

to  do  more   work,  will  you  please  call  here   at   the 
Schoolroom,  or  drop  me  a  note,  so  that  we  can  have 

a  better  understanding  of needs  and  capacity, 

and  arrange  the  work  with  reference  to  them. 


Respectfully, 

Teacher. 

Please  sign  and  return  this, 

\Ptace  for  signing.] .__     


RECORDS  AND  REPORTS.  319 

School, 

,_,_ 188... 

M_ 

deportrneiit 

at  school  '/.<?  not  satisfactory. 

I  tliinh  it  best  to  infomn  you  of  the  fact,  that  all 
influences  may  he  brought  to  bear  upon 

before  any  serious  foinn  of  punishinent  is  resorted  to. 


Respectfully, 

Teacher. 

To  aid  in  maintaining  good  order,  please  sign  and  return  this. 

[Place  for  signing.] 


320  ORGANIZATION. 

[To  be  sent  to  the  School  Committee  or  Superintendent.] 
REPORT  OF   THE    PUNISHMENT 

QJ'  [NAME]  [AGE] 

Residence. 

Date  of  Punishirient, 188^_.. 

THE  TEACHER   WILL   PLEASE  WRITE  ANSWERS  TO  THE   FOLLOWING: 

1.  In  what  manner  was  the  above-named  pupil  punished? 

2,  What  was  the  offence? 


3.  What  was  his  general  character? 

4.  What  do  you  know  of  the  home  influences  surrounding  him?- 

5.  What  other  means  have  you  employed  for  his  reform? 


6,    Were  his  parents  duly  notified  of  his  conduct  before  you  resorted  to  corporal 

punishment? 

What  was  the  response? 


7.  Has  he  ever  been  referred  to  the  Principal  or  Superintendent? 
How  many  times? 

8.  What  was  the  result  of  the  punishment? 


Teacher. 


MORAL   TRAINING.  321 

MORAL   TRAINING   AND   SCHOOL 
GOVERNMENT. 

If  we  ask  ourselves  seriously  the  question,  What  is 
education  for  ?  there  will  arise  in  our  minds  a  train  of 
reasoning  which  will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
building  up  of  character  is  not  only  a  gxeat  and  impor- 
tant part  of  education,  but  that  it  is  really  the  only  end 
to  be  sought.  To  know  how  to  buy  and  sell  commodi- 
ties, to  be  able  to  learn  the  ideas  of  others  through  the 
printed  page,  and  to  be  able  to  express  to  others  our 
ideas  by  writing,  —  all  these  acquirements  are  good  and 
useful  for  us  to  have  ;  but  they  are  good  and  useful  only 
so  far  as  we  put  them  to  a  good  use  in  right  living,  — • 
only  so  far  as  our  actions  are  the  expression  and  ultima- 
tion  of  a  high  and  unselfish  purpose  of  being  useful  to 
others. 

Acknowledging  that  moral  training  for  the  young  is 
necessary,  we  have  first  to  inquire  whether  any  part  of 
that  work  belongs  to  the  school.  It  is  said  by  some 
that  the  function  of  the  school  is  to  cultivate  the  intel- 
lect alone,  and  that  moral  training  belongs  to  the  home. 
There  is  no  question  that  the  home  should  have  a  large 
share  in  the  moral  training  of  the  child.  It  is  a  fact, 
however,  patent  to  all,  that  there  are  many  homes  in 
almost  all  communities  which  do  nothing  to  elevate  the 
condition  of  the  young,  and  if  example  counts  for  any- 
thing, as  we  know  it  does,  there  are  thousands  of  chil- 
dren to-day  who  are  becoming  worse  rather  than  better, 
by  constant  association  with  unprincipled  parents.  For 
the  sake  of  these  children  and  for  the  protection  of  the 


322  MORAL   TRAINING,    ETC. 

community  some  means  must  be  provided  to  do  what 
parents  leave  undone. 

But  it  is  said  that  moral  training  belongs  to  the 
church.  An  hour  or  two  a  week  of  counsel  and  in- 
struction, however  good  the  counsel  and  instruction 
may  be,  is  not  enough  to  counteract  the  bad  influences 
constantly  surrounding  the  child.  And  even  if  the 
church  should  do  more  than  it  now  does,  it  cannot  afford 
to  scorn  assistance  which  the  school  is  able  to  give. 
Again,  we  are  told  that  there  is  moral  power  gained  by 
cultivating  the  intellect  alone.  This  is  undoubtedly  true 
to  a  certain  extent,  but  the  elevating  influence  of  mere 
mental  training  is  much  exaggerated  in  the  minds  of 
most  people.  Indeed,  when  we  see  the  rapidly  increasing 
amount  of  worse  than  useless  literature  which  is  being 
read  by  persons  possessed  of  the  rudiments  of  learning 
only,  we  may  well  wonder  if  a  little  learning  or  only 
learning  is  not  a  most  dangerous  thing.  No ;  it  belongs 
to  the  school,  and  to  the  school  mainly,  to  lead  the  young 
into  habits  of  "  complete  living,"  which  depends  quite  as 
much  upon  the  cultivation  of  the  sensibilities  and  will 
as  upon  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect  or  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge. 

Regular  Studies,  Means,  not  Ends. — "But,"  says  the 
overworked  teacher,  struggling  with  his  crowded  course 
of  studies,  "  where  is  the  time  for  all  this  ?  "  Here  is 
implied  the  greatest  mistake  of  our  common-school 
system,  —  the  notion  that  the  branches  of  study  are  so 
many  separate  subjects  to  be  taught  and  studied  as  ends 
rather  than  as  means.  The  subjects  which  may  be 
classed  under  the  general  head  of  "  Morals,"  and  which 
should  be  taught  in  school,  may  perhaps  take  no  set 


MOKAL   TKAINING.  323 

time  for  presentation ;  yet  there  should  be  no  time  of 
the  school  in  which  they  are  not  in  the  mind  of  the 
teacher,  ready  for  use  whenever  an  opportunity  presents 
itself.  The  instruction  need  not  be  by  formal  lectures, 
though  these  are  by  no  means  as  objectionable  as  many 
would  have  us  believe,  especially  if  they  are  given  in 
the  form  of  familiar  illustrations  or  stories.  But  the 
spirit  of  these  virtues  should  so  pervade  the  atmosphere 
of  the  schoolroom  as  to  give  to  the  child  every  hour  of 
the  day  newer  and  higher  ideas  of  his  relation  to  others. 
Even  in  the  regular  studies  must  the  teacher  keep  in 
mind  their  ethical  side. 

In  reading,  the  children  should  be  brought  into  close 
contact  with  all  that  is  good,  true,  and  beautiful  in 
human  life.  By  means  of  the  printed  page  the  best 
examples  of  practical  wisdom  and  goodness  are  set 
before  them.  While  they  are  learning  these  lessons, 
they  are  learning  to  look  for  goodness  in  others,  and 
they  are  also  learning  to  incorporate  it  in  themselves. 
Continuous  practice  in  reading  will  make  such  employ- 
ment easy  and  pleasant ;  and  if  the  reading  is  rightly 
directed,  the  habits  thus  formed  will  lead  the  children 
to  seek  the  best  literature  after  they  leave  school. 
And  this  direction  should  not  be  merely  general  and 
occasional :  it  must  be  particular  and  constant.  Instead 
of  talking  about  good  reading,  such  reading  should  be 
brought  into  the  schoolroom  and  read  there.  School 
libraries  should  be  formed  in  every  grammar  and  high 
school  building,  and  the  books  from  these  libraries  and 
from  the  public  library  should  be  used  under  the  direct 
supervision  and  encouragement  of  the  teacher.  Let  us 
not  for  a   moment  lose   sight   of  the   dangers   which 


324  MORAL   TRAINING,    ETC. 

threaten  our  young  people  in  the  bad  and  unwholesome 
literature  with  which  the  shelves  of  our  shops  are 
loaded.  That  it  is  to-day  poisoning  the  intellectual  and 
moral  life-blood  of  our  people,  no  one  who  keeps  his 
eyes  open  to  what  is  going  on  about  him  can  deny. 
As  teachers  we  cannot  expect  to  bring  into  healthy  life 
these  diseased  minds.  But  we  can  and  should  do  much 
to  counteract  the  evil  influences  of  our  time  by  making 
the  poison  bitter  or  nauseous  to  the  taste,  and  by  creat- 
ing a  desire  and  love  for  the  best  literature. 

What  is  true  of  reading  is  true  of  every  branch  of 
study  taught  in  the  schools.  The  end  to  be  reached  is 
not  to  cultivate  the  intellect  of  the  pupils  alone,  nor  to 
help  them  to  gather  facts  together  merely  for  the  sake 
of  possession  ;  but  it  is  to  prepare  them  for  the  duties 
of  life  —  to  ennoble  and  to  make  more  effective  the 
employments  upon  which  they  are  to  enter.  Therefore, 
in  every  subject  taught,  whether  it  be  language,  or 
histor}^,  or  mathematics,  or  science,  the  one  great  end 
of  education,  "complete  living,"  should  be  kept  con- 
stantly in  mind  by  the  teacher. 

The.  direct  influence  of  good  methods  of  teaching 
upon  the  behavior  of  children  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. When  subjects  are  presented  in  the  right 
way,  the  interest  in  study  and  in  the  subjects  studied 
is  so  great  that  the  inclination  to  wrong-doing  is  pre- 
vented; and  if  the  child  has  evil  tendencies  or  has 
formed  bad  habits,  they  can  be  corrected  much  more 
easily  if  he  has  acquired  a  good  method  of  doing,  and 
a  love  of  doing,  some  useful  work. 

Influence  of  Example.  —  We  must  recognize  the  fact 
that  a  child  is  guided  in  his  early  years  more  by  his 


MORAL   Tit  AIM'S  G.  325 

feelings  than  by  any  intellectual  perception  of  right  and 
wrong.  We  must  remember,  also,  that  he  is  by  nature 
imitative  in  all  his  acts,  and  that  the  influence  of  exam- 
ple is  especially  powerful  in  these  early  years.  What- 
ever is  wrong  in  the  conduct  of  the  parent  or  teacher 
will  be,  we  may  be  sure,  incorporated  to  some  degree 
in  the  child's  life.  The  personal  surroundings  of  the 
child,  therefore,  come  to  be  an  important  factor  of  his 
education.  Reverence,  truthfulness,  sincerity,  and  unself- 
ishness make  their  first  and  strongest  impressions  upon 
the  child  when  they  are  practised  in  the  lives  of  those 
who  are  about  him,  and  especially  of  those  in  whose 
charge  he  is  and  to  whom  he  naturally  looks  for  guid- 
ance. 

The  principle -that  the  teacher  should  be  all  he  would 
have  his  pupils  be  is  a  most  important  one,  and  exacts 
from  him  more  than  at  first  appears.  Both  in  school 
and  out  he  must  be  watchful,  lest  by  the  slightest  word 
or  act  he  swerves  from  the  path  in  which  he  would  lead 
his  pupils.  This  high  standard  of  living  is  demanded 
of  the  teacher  not  only  for  its  direct  influence  upon  the 
young,  but  also  for  the  added  power  which  his  words 
of  counsel  will  have. 

MORAL  INSTRUCTION. 

Can  anything  more  be  done  in  school  than  is  done  in 
the  regular  studies  to  accomplish  the  highest  ends  of 
education?  Two  direct  ways  present  themselves  — 
ways  that  are  at  once  practicable  and  effective.  The 
first  of  these  ways  is  instruction. 

Regular  Talks.  —  The  use  of  regular  talks  with  pupils 
upon  subjects  connected  with  morals  has  been  spoken 


326  MOKAL  TRAINING,   ETC. 

of.  It  is  true  that  these  exercises  are  deprecated  by 
many  teachers.  But  a  little  observation  may  convince 
us  that  those  who  deprecate  most  strongly  the  practice 
of  giving  regular  talks  to  their  pupils,  seldom  resort  to 
other  and  better  methods.  Of  course  it  would  not  be 
necessary  or  well  to  give  set  discourses  upon  the  various 
virtues  to  young  children.  But  if  —  say  upon  every 
Monday  morning  —  the  teacher  should  direct  the  atten- 
tion of  his  pupils  to  some  one  subject,  such  as  honesty, 
forgiveness,  temperance,  justice,  kindness  to  animals, 
and  the  like,  by  giving  appropriate  illustrations  and 
anecdotes,  who  can  say  that  some  seed  may  not  be  sown 
upon  good  ground?  The  stories  may  be  of  incidents 
in  the  lives  of  illustrious  men  and  women,  or  they  may 
be  of  incidents  which  have  actually  occurred  within  the 
observation  of  the  teacher. 

Incidental  Instruction.  —  But  useful  as  such  exer- 
cises are,  they  should  not  take  the  place  of  what  may  be 
called  incidental  instruction.  In  every  school  events 
are  constantly  happening  in  connection  with  which 
some  good  lesson  may  be  given  at  the  time  of  their 
occurrence.  A  boy  has,  perhaps,  found  a  knife  and  not 
restored  it  to  the  owner ;  or  a  pupil  has  coj)ied  a  lesson 
or  an  examination  from  a  classmate's  paper ;  or  the 
boys  have  been  found  playing  marbles  "  for  keeps " : 
these  and  a  hundred  other  incidents  of  school  life  may 
furnish  the  very  best  text  for  a  talk  with  the  pupils, 
when  the  wrong  or  injury  done  is  fresh  in  their  minds. 

Devotional  Exercise.  —  There  is  another  exercise  of 
the  school  which  should  have  an  elevating  influence 
upon  the  children,  and  that  is  the  devotional  exercise. 
As  commonly  conducted,  this  exercise  has  little  or  no 


MORAL   TRAINING.  327 

gocd  moral  influence ;  indeed,  when  conducted,  as  it 
too  often  is,  in  a  cold,  careless,  or  perfunctory  way, 
the^'e  may  be  more  harm  than  good  done  by  it.  Indif- 
ference on  the  part  of  the  teacher  induces  indifference 
and  disorder  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  and  when  dis- 
order accompanies  the  devotional  exercise,  there  is 
encouraged  in  the  children  a  spirit  of  disregard  and 
contempt  for  serious  things  which  may  affect  the  whole 
future  of  their  lives.  The  devotional  exercise  must 
be  :  larked  by  a  devotional  spirit  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  More  will  depend  upon  that  than  upon  what 
is  done.  When  the  hands  of  the  clock  indicate  that 
the  time  for  opening  has  come,  let  every  pupil  be  in 
his  seat ;  and  when  there  is  absolute  stillness  in  the 
room,  —  not  before,  —  let  the  teacher  take  the  Bible 
reverently  in  his  hands  and  read  slowly  a  few  verses. 
Then  let  him  repeat  slowly  and  devoutly  the  prayer 
with  which  all  are  familiar,  and  to  conclude  let  the 
children  sing  two  stanzas  of  some  familiar  hymn.  It 
may  take  less  than  five  minutes  for  all  this ;  but  if  it 
is  done  as  it  should  be,  in  a  subdued  and  devout  spirit, 
it  will  have*  an  effect  upon  all  the  subsequent  work 
of  che  day.  Moreover,  it  will  lead  the  children  to 
respect  and  venerate  all  the  counsels  that  the  teacher 
may  give,  for  they  see  better  than  any  one  else  that 
such  counsels  come  from  a  Christian  spirit  of  love. 

Memorizing  Gems.  —  Akin  to  this  exercise  in  its 
effect  is  the  recitation  by  the  children  of  gems,  —  noble 
sentiments  in  prose  and  poetry.  A  stated  number  of  lines 
weekly  —  say  from  five  to  ten  —  should  be  memorized 
and  written  correctly  in  books  prepared  for  the  purpose. 
For  this  purpose  two  or  three  of  the  best  books  of  selec- 


328  MORAL  TRAINING,   ETC. 

tions  should  be  upon  the  table  of  every  teacher.  These 
and  the  ordinary  reading-books  will  furnish  material 
with  which  the  children's  minds  may  be  elevated  and 
enriched. 

The  second  direct  means  of  teaching  morals  is  the 
regulation  of  conduct  in  the 

GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Morals,  as  defined  by  Webster,  is  "the  doctrine  or 
practice  of  the  duties  of  life,  —  manners,  conduct,  be- 
havior." It  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  here  the  relation 
of  morals  as  thus  defined,  to  the  morals  which  belong 
to  religion ;  nor  that  other  question  which  is  constantly 
forced  upon  us,  namely,  whether  we  are  not  trenching 
upon  ground  which  properly  belongs  to  the  church 
when  we  depart  from  purely  intellectual  training. 
Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  morals  which  it  is  incum- 
bent upon  us  to  teach  relate  to  the  outward  conduct 
of  the  individual  in  his  relations  with  others,  and  that 
the  character  thus  formed  is  the  basis  of  the  religious 
experience  and  life  which  follow.  This  idea  by  no 
means  precludes  the  necessity  of  giving  close  attention 
to  motives  in  older  children.  Indeed,  without  such 
attention  the  child  may  be  led  to  believe  that  outward 
order  or  correctness  of  living  is  the  only  end  to  be 
sought  independent  of  the  governing  motive.  In  this 
way  hypocrisy  —  the  most  insidious  of  evils  —  uncon- 
sciously creeps  into  the  life  hidden  behind  a  kind  of 
"smartness,"  which  is  too  often  regarded  as  the  highest 
virtue  to  be  sought. 

Toward  what,  then,  shall  we  direct  the  steps  of  our 
children  ?     To  do  contentedly  and  happily  some  useful 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  329 

work  in  the  world ;  to  resist  temptations  to  do  wrong, 
independent  of  external  restraints ;  and  in  all  the  rela- 
tions of  life  to  treat  others  as  he  himself  would  be 
treated,  —  these  are  the  characteristics  of  the  life  of  a 
good  man,  and  they  are  the  ends  toward  which  we 
should  work  in  school.  These  can  best  be  secured  in 
the  government  of  the  school,  by  which  is  meant  every- 
thing pertaining  to  the  school  life  of  the  child. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  life  of  the  good  man  or 
woman  that  cannot  find  its  counterpart,  or  at  least  its 
image,  in  the  schoolroom.  The  conditions  of  life  in 
the  school  and  in  the  world  are  much  the  same,  and  he 
is  a  wise  teacher  who  makes  the  experience  of  the  one 
a  direct  preparation  for  the  experience  of  the  other. 

Formation  of  Habits.  —  We  all  know  the  tendency  of 
repetition  which  the  child  has.  If  he  does  pleasurably 
or  easily  an  act  at  any  time,  the  presumption  may  be, 
that  he  will  repeat  the  act  at  a  convenient  opportunity, 
and  again  repeat  it,  until  a  habit  is  formed.  If  the 
habit  thus  formed  is  a  good  one,  as,  for  example,  the 
habit  of  attention  or  of  truthfulness,  it  will  be  a  powerful 
means  of  mental  or  moral  growth ;  but  if  it  be  a  bad 
habit,  as  the  habit  of  inattention  or  of  deception,  it  will 
stand  in  the  way  of  progress  until  by  hard  experience 
it  is  removed.  The  formation  of  a  habit,  therefore,  is 
everywhere  recognized  as  a  powerful  agent  for  good  or 
ill  in  the  child's  education.  Indeed,  the  usefulness  of 
the  school  consists  mainly  in  the  formation  of  good 
habits.  The  habits  of  observation,  of  attention,  and  of 
industry,  for  example,  are  much  more  to  the  child  than 
all  the  information  he  acquires;  while  in  matters  of 
conduct,  the  habits  he  forms  in  school  are  worth  to  him 
more  than  all  other  things  combined. 


830  MORAL   TRAINING,    ETC. 

We  desire  first  of  all  to  get  the  child  into  the  habit 
of  doing  just  what  we  hope  to  have  him  do  in  after 
life.  We  desire  to  have  the  good  habits  so  fixed  that  he 
will  involuntarily  act  from  them  during  the  first  few 
years  of  childhood,  and  that  afterwards  they  will  be  a 
bulwark  of  defence  against  temptations,  and  will  be 
followed  from  a  free  and  happy  choice. 

Obedience.  —  The  habit  of  obedience  stands  first 
among  the  best  habits  of  childhood.  In  his  earlier 
years  the  child  obeys  implicitly,  without  asking  for  rea- 
sons ;  that  is,  he  thus  obeys  if  we  have  not  been  care- 
less, inconsistent,  and  vacillating  in  the  exercise  of  our 
authority.  Our  will  is  his  will  in  these  early  years,  and 
he  is  satisfied  to  have  us  regulate  his  conduct.  Later, 
he  begins  to  desire  to  exercise  his  will,  and  demands 
more  frequently  than  before  reasons  for  our  denials  of 
his  requests.  All  this  may  be  a  sign  of  development, 
and  his  growing  independence  should  be  respected,  and 
even  anticipated.  We  must  not  assume  that  the  child 
is  always  obstinate  or  wilful  when  he  demurs  or  hesi- 
tates. The  fault  may  be  partly  our  own.  If  we  give  a 
thoughtful  consideration  to  every  request  before  our 
decision  is  made,  and  then  uniformly  adhere  to  the 
decision  when  it  is  made ;  if  all  our  judgments  are  for 
the  best  interests  of  the  child,  and  we  take  pains  to 
make  them  appear  so  to  him ;  if,  in  a  word,  the  child 
has  confidence  in  our  wisdom,  there  will  be  little  or  no 
opposition  on  his  part  to  our  judgments  as  they  are 
given.  But  if  we  give  our  decisions  in  a  hasty  way, 
considering  them  after  they  are  given  rather  than  be- 
fore, or  if  our  decisions  are  arbitrary,  with  no  apparent 
justice  in  them  even  to  the  child  himself,  there  will  be 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  331 

much  opposition  on  his  part,  not  only  to  our  unjust 
decisions,  but  to  all  decisions  we  may  give. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  even  with  the  greatest  care 
from  the  first,  our  will  and  the  will  of  the  child  may 
sometimes  come  into  collision.  Adverse  conditions  may 
exist  over  which  we  have  no  control.  The  child's  mind 
or  our  own  may  be  in  an  unhealthy  state  through  sick- 
ness of  the  body ;  frequent  change  of  masters  may  be 
made  whose  methods  do  not  agree ;  or  the  child  may 
inherit  a  quick  temper,  which  sometimes  shows  itself 
very  early  in  life.  All  these  conditions  or  any  one  of 
them  may  prevent  prompt  and  willing  obedience.  But 
generally  it  may  be  said  that,  if  proper  care  is  taken, 
there  will  be  little  need  of  an  active  exercise  of  au- 
thority on  our  part,  and  that  we  shall  never  need  to  do 
what  some  parents  and  teachers  regard  as  necessary, 
namely,  break  the  will  of  the  child  by  severe  punish- 
ment. Sternness,  and  even  severity,  may  be  at  times 
necessary,  but  they  should  be  exercised  —  and  be  seen 
to  be  so  exercised  —  in  love  and  sorrow,  rather  than 
in  a  hasty  or  angry  manner,  as  too  many  commands 
and  punishments  seem  to  be. 

Truthfulness.  —  There  are  few  qualities  of  childhood 
more  full  of  grace,  and  at  the  same  time  more  full  of 
promise  for  the  future,  tlian  that  of  open-hearted,  sincere 
truthfulness.  IIow  to  secure  it  is  indeed  a  difficult 
task,  all  the  more  difficult  from  the  fact  that  the  earliest 
forms  of  untruthfulness  are  likely  to  escape  our  notice 
because  they  are  so  hidden.  Sly  evasions  both  in  word 
and  deed,  unfulfilled  promises,  exaggerated  descriptions 
of  what  has  been  seen,  one-sided  and  colored  accounts 
of  wrong  done,  —  all  these  and   many  other  forms   of 


332  MORAL  TRAINING,   ETC. 

untruthfulness  need  most  careful  management.  It  is 
surprising  how  careless  we  become  in  some  matters 
which  may  have  little  effect  upon  our  characters,  but 
which  have  great  influence  upon  children.  It  is  a  com- 
paratively small  thing,  for  instance,  to  tinge  the  descrip- 
tion of  an  event  or  thing  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  a 
wrong  impression  to  others.  We  may  even  encourage 
the  children  to  do  this,  by  manifesting  interest  or  sur- 
prise in  their  descriptions  when  we  know  that  they 
are  not  strictly  accurate.  Success  or  non-hindrance  in 
equivocating  leads  the  child  still  further  on,  until, 
before  we  are  aware  of  it,  deception  and  falsehood  have 
fastened  themselves  upon  his  acts  and  w^ords.  The 
remedy  lies  in  our  vigilance  in  detecting  the  fault,  and 
in  our  patience  in  correcting  it  every  time  it  is  seen. 
How  this  may  be  done  will  be  spoken  of  in  another 
place. 

Industry.  — The  influence  of  the  good  school  is  in  no 
way  more  plainly  manifest  than  in  the  formation  of  the 
habit  of  industry.  When  the  child  first  enters  school, 
he  should  be  given  employment  of  a  suitable  kind ; 
by  frequent  change  he  should  be  kept  profitably  and 
pleasantly  occupied  all  the  time  he  is  in  school.  Gener- 
ally, it  may  be  said  that  idleness  on  the  part  of  pupils 
indicates  an  improper  kind  or  insufficient  amount  of 
work  required.  It  is  true  that  many  pupils  who  are 
irregular  in  attendance  find  it  difficult  to  apply  their 
minds  to  the  same  kind  of  work  as  is  given  other  pupils; 
and  it  is  also  true  that,  to  do  justice  to  all,  the  teacher 
cannot  spend  much  extra  time  on  these  irregular  pupils. 
But  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible,  the  requirements 
should  be  made  to  suit  the  state  and  capacity  of  every 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  333 

pupil,  to  the  end  of  keeping  all  pupils  at  all  times 
properly  employed. 

Order  and  Neatness.  —  To  inculcate  proper  habits  of 
order,  the  teacher  finds  it  necessary  to  attend  to  little 
tilings  which  to  an  outsider  may  seem  trivial.  Such 
trifling  offences  as  littering  the  floor  with  paper,  or 
throwing  the  books  in  a  heap  together  in  the  desk,  or 
not  returning  a  book  to  its  proper  place,  must  be  cor- 
rected constantly;  and  it  can  be  done  in  no  better  way 
than  by  having  the  child  do  properly  what  is  left  un- 
done. The  same  may  be  said  of  carelessness  and  untidi- 
ness. No  punishment  is  so  good  for  the  prevention  of 
these  faults  as  the  prompt  and  unvarying  correction  of 
them  by  the  pupil  himself.  It  is  well  sometimes  to 
appoint  for  each  week  a  committee  of  two  whose  duty 
it  is  to  inspect  the  desks  and  other  parts  of  the  room, 
and  report  to  the  teacher  daily  their  condition  as  to 
order,  etc. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  toilet  appliances  constantly  at 
hand  for  the  use  of  pupils  who  need  them. 

Politeness.  —  The  duties  of  politeness,  and  a  regard 
for  the  feelings  of  others,  should  be  taught  objectively 
in  the  e very-day  life  of  the  school.  Constant  attention 
to  these  things  will  do  much  to  fix  a  good  habit,  and 
make  the  common  acts  of  courtesy  in  after  life  less  irk- 
some and  difficult.  No  rudeness  like  laughing  at  the 
mistakes  of  others,  or  annoying  them  in  any  way,  should 
ever  be  allowed.  For  every  favor  received  proper  ac- 
knowledgments should  always  be  made,  and  for  every- 
thing done  which  disturbs  or  incommodes  others  excuses 
should  be  given  or  an  apology  be  offered.  Who  has 
not  seen  the  marked  effect  of  such  a  course  of  training 


334  MOKAL  TRAINING,   ETC. 

given  by  some  faithful  teacher,  and  who  can  doubt  that 
the  improved  manners  of  the  children  react  in  stimu- 
lating a  better  feeling  toward  others? 

Contamination.  —  One  of  the  most  common  charges 
against  the  public  schools  is  that  there  is  danger  of  con- 
tamination. It  is  a  serious  charge,  and  one  to  which 
we  should  give  great  heed.  Wink  at  it  as  we  may,  there 
is  real  danger,  where  so  many  children  are  thrown  to- 
gether, that  the  better  and  more  sensitive  children  will 
suffer  by  contact  with  others  at  recess  and  before  and 
after  school.  Is  it  too  much,  under  such  circumstances, 
that  the  parents  of  such  children  ask,  nay,  demand,  from 
us  all  the  protection  that  we  can  give  ?  To  add  to  the 
teacher's  burden  of  care,  which  is  already  great,  seems 
almost  unreasonable ;  but  knowing  as  much  as  you  do 
of  the  bad  influence  which  some  of  your  pupils  may 
exert  over  others,  what  would  you  wish  done,  if  you 
were  a  parent?  Would  you  not  prefer  that  your  child 
should  have  no  education  if,  in  getting  that  educa- 
tion, he  must  be  exposed  to  the  degrading  influence  of 
vicious  companions?  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  while  you  are  protecting  the  innocent  and  good, 
you  are  at  the  same  time  correcting  the  habits  of  the 
bad.  The  longer  you  keep  a  boy  from  the  use  of  bad 
words,  the  less  likely  will  he  be  to  form  the  habit  of 
using  them.  These  are  the  principal  reasons  why  you, 
or  some  teacher,  should  be  within"  sight  or  hearing  of 
your  pupils  at  recess.  There  are  other  reasons.  By 
directing  and  sympathizing  with  the  children  in  their 
play,  you  will  find  that  your  hold  upon  them  will  be 
stronger  in  the  schoolroom,  and  tliat  you  can  lead  them 
better  there.     Besides,  you  will  find  the  fresh  air  and 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  335 

exercise  as  good  and  necessary  for  your  bodily  health 
as  they  are  for  your  pupils.  For  all  of  these  reasons 
we  see  that  it  is  not  only  well,  but  necessary,  for  a 
teacher  to  be  with  his  pupils  all  the  time  they  are 
committed  to  his  care. 

The  Condition  of  the  School  Premises.  —  It  is  not 
necessary  to  allude  to  the  degrading  effects  of  the 
improper  words  and  pictures  that  are  found  on  too 
many  of  our  buildings.  There  is  absolute  demoraliza- 
tion and  degradation  not  only  to  the  authors  of  these 
markings,  but  to  all  the  young  and  innocent  children 
who  see  them,  —  evil  effects  which  can  never  be  effaced. 
Where  defilement  and  symbols  of  impurity  exist,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  somebody  to  do  something  to 
remedy  the  evil.  The  teachers  who  do  not  report  to 
the  school  committee  the  bad  condition  of  the  buildings, 
and  the  committees  who  do  not  remedy  it,  are  guilty  of 
a  most  grievous  wrong.  When  the  objectionable  mark- 
ings are  removed,  and  the  buildings  are  restored,  there 
should  be  constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  teachers. 
The  doors  of  all  buildings  should  be  locked,  and  a  sys- 
tem of  inspection  be  inaugurated  that  will  prevent  a 
repetition  of  the  evil. 

We  are  inclined  to  place  all  these  things  outside  of 
what  we  call  the  government  of  the  school,  whereas 
they  are  an  important  part  of  it.  The  truth  of  the 
•''  ounce  of  prevention  "  adage  is  nowhere  more  apparent 
than  in  the  precautions  which  have  been  mentioned. 
But  of  all  the  precautions  that  can  be  taken  by  the 
teacher,  none  are  more  powerful  in  preventing  disorder 
and  cultivating  the  will  than  that  of  leading  pupils  to 
govern  themselves. 


336  MORAL   TRAINING,   ETC. 

Punishment.  —  Few  schools  can  be  conducted  for  any 
length  of  time  without  punishments  of  some  form  ;  and 
the  success  or  failure  of  a  teacher  frequently  depends 
upon  the  manner  in  which  the  punishments  are  ad- 
ministered. It  becomes  a  matter  of  some  importance, 
therefore,  to  know  how  to  punish  judiciously.  The 
statement  of  a  few  principles  and  cautions  may  be  help- 
ful to  some  teachers. 

1.  Kindness,  firmness,  and  justice  should  characterize 
every  punishment.  Punishments  which  tend  only  to 
irritate  or  degrade  the  offender  should  be  avoided,  such 
as  pulling  the  hair  or  ears,  confining  pupils  in  a  dark 
room,  putting  pepper  upon  the  tongue,  compelling 
pupils  to  wear  a  dunce-cap,  using  ridicule  or  sarcasm. 

2.  Punishments  should  never  be  arbitrary,  but  should 
as  nearly  as  possible  naturally  follow  the  offence. 
Extra  tasks,  for  example,  should  never  be  given  pupils 
for  misconduct,  not  only  because  there  is  no  connection 
between  the  offence  and  punishment,  but  because  such 
a  course  tends  to  make  pupils  dislike  study. 

3.  Penalties  should  be  consistent  and  uniform ;  that  is, 
an  offence  should  not  be  punished  at  one  time,  which  is 
passed  over  in  silence  at  another  time.  Never  threaten, 
or  at  least  never  promise  what  cannot  be  carried  out 
to  the  letter.  Inconsistency  and  vacillation  in  the  mat- 
ter of  punishment  have  caused  more  failures  in  disci- 
pline than  anything  else. 

4.  While  the  power  to  punish  corporeally  should  not 
be  denied  teachers,  such  punishment  should  be  given 
but  seldom.  A  teacher  who  teaches  well,  and  who 
is  able  to  keep  his  pupils  constantly  employed,  one  who 
is  quick  to  detect  the  signs  of  disorder,  and  who  is  skil- 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  337 

ful  in  preventing  it,  is  likely  never  to  have  a  case  of 
corporal  punishment.  Others,  through  want  of  expe- 
rience and  tact,  may  be  obliged  to  resort  to  corporal 
punishment  to  maintain  their  authority.  If  such  pun- 
ishment is  unavoidable,  let  it  be  clearl}^  known  what  it 
is  for,  and  let  it  be  dispassionately  given.  It  miglit 
be  well,  to  avoid  any  danger  of  passion,  to  keep  the 
instrument  used  for  punishment  in  a  place  not  easily 
reached.  An  hour  at  least  should  intervene  between 
the  offence  and  the  punishment.  The  punishment 
should  be  upon  the  hand,  and  with  a  light  rattan.  It 
should  not  be  so  slight  as  to  excite  contempt,  nor  so 
severe  as  to  do  injury  to  the  mind  or  body  of  the 
offender.  As  a  rule,  it  should  not  be  administered  in 
the  presence  of  other  pupils.  As  a  safeguard  against 
mistakes,  a  report  of  every  case  of  corporal  punish- 
ment should  be  sent  to  the  school  committee  or  super- 
intendent. A  blank  for  such  a  report  is  given  on  page 
320. 

Conditions  of  Grood  Government. — -The  most  frequent 
and  at  the  same  time  tha  gravest  fault  of  discipline,  is 
the  encouragement  of  deception.  The  offence,  in  the  eyes 
of  the  pupils,  is  generally  "  being  found  out,^^  not  the 
wrong  done.  A  good  disciplinarian  is,  in  the  estimation 
of  many,  not  only  one  who  is  strong  enough  to  punish 
his  pupils  vigorously,  but  one  who  is  sharp  enough  to 
catch  them  at  their  tricks.  Too  many  schools  are  gov- 
erned on  the  assumption  that  the  governor  and  the  gov- 
erned naturally  pull  in  opposite  directions ;  that  the 
children  are  necessarily  the  sworn  enemies  of  the 
teacher,  and  he  of  them.  The  essential  elements  of 
good  government  are,  first,  a  friendly  public  sentiment 


338  MORAL   TRAINING,    ETC. 

in  favor  of  law  and  order ;  and,  secondly,  a  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  larger  portion  of  the  governed  to 
do  right,  not  merely  because  they  are  commanded  by 
law  to  do  so,  but  because  it  is  right.  Without  these 
conditions  no  government  can  long  continue,  and  with- 
out them  society  can  scarcely  be  called  civilized.  With- 
out these  conditions,  also,  no  school  can  be  said  to  be 
civilized,  or  at  least  civilizing  in  its  influence.  It  is  a 
wrong  estimate  to  make  upon  the  moral  strength  of 
older  boys  and  girls,  to  assume  that  they  need  to  be 
tended  like  babies,  on  the  one  hand,  or  watched  like 
criminals,  on  the  other,  —  an  assumption  which  tends 
to  deprive  them  of  the  opportunity  of  exercising  their 
freedom  of  choice  between  right  and  wrong. 

Self-Control.  —  With  the  young  child  this  principle  is 
kept  out  of  sight  to  a  great  degree ;  but  as  he  advances 
in  age  he  is  led  to  depend  less  and  less  upon  others  and 
more  upon  himself.  It  is  for  us,  therefore,  to  place 
before  him  higher  and  higher  motives  of  action.  At 
least,  we  should  not  appeal,  as  many  do,  to  the  low 
motives ;  such  as  the  fear  of  punishment  and  the  desire 
for  high  per  cent  marks. 

We  should  encourage,  so  far  as  we  can  and  so  soon 
as  we  can,  the  performance  of  duties  based  upon  the 
principle  that  the  doer  is  to  exercise  self-control  and 
self-denial,  because  it  is  best  for  him  to  do  so.  The 
school  is  a  miniature  world,  and  there  are  fcAV  trials, 
perplexities,  privileges,  and  enjoyments  of  active  life 
in  the  world  which  are  not  experienced  to  a  greater 
or  less  decree  in  the  schoolroom.  Who  are  the  best 
citizens?  They  wlio  govern  themselves.  Who  are  the 
most  useful  members  of  society  ?     They  who  look  to  the 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  339 

welfare  and  comfort  of  others.  Who  are  best  prepared 
to  meet  the  difficulties  which  contact  with  the  world 
is  sure  to  bring  ?  Plainly,  they  who  have  met  and  mas- 
tered similar  ones  while  they  were  young.  Self-govern- 
ment and  a  sacred  regard  for  the  welfare  of  others 
should,  therefore,  be  the  guiding  principles  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  school. 

Illustrative  Example.  —  To  see  more  clearly  how 
children  may  be  led  into  habits  of  truthfulness  and 
self-control,  iet  us  go  somewhat  into  details.  You  are, 
it  may  be,  before  a  new  class  or  school.  What  is  your 
first  duty?  Plainly,  not  to  read  a  lecture  upon  the 
importance  of  being  good ;  nor  to  expound  a  long  set 
of  rules.  Let  your  manner,  on  entering  the  school, 
give  them  assurance  that  you  are  the  friend  of  the 
pupils  and  glad  to  be  with  them.  If  you  say  anything, 
simply  say  that  you  have  come  to  help  them,  and  that 
you  hope  they  will  let  you.  Nothing  need  be  said  of 
order.  Let  the  assumption  be  at  the  outset  that  there 
will  be  no  disorder.  Set  the  school  to  work  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  endeavor  to  make  the  work  pleasant  and 
agreeable.  Upon  the  first  violation  of  good  order,  say 
to  the  offender  and  to  the  school  that  that  particular 
offence,  and  everything  like  it,  ought  never  to  be 
committed,  and  then  tell  them  the  reasoii  wliy.  Be  sure 
that  this  is  not  omitted,  for  you  must  remember  that 
your  first  purpose  is  to  bring  your  pupils  over  to  your 
side,  and  you  can  best  do  this  by  establishing  a  reputa- 
tion for  kindness  and  fairness  at  the  start.  Soon  there 
is,  perhaps,  more  disorder  of  a  similar  kind.  Now 
comes  your  first  really  practical  lesson  in  self-control. 
Your  question  is,  "  Did  you  know  that  I  do  not  want 


840  MORAL   TRAINING,    ETC. 

that  done  ?  "  or,  "  Would  you  have  done  that  if  I  had 
been  looking?"  If  the  pupil  says  that  he  did  not  know 
that  you  do  not  want  it  done,  tell  him  plainly  again, 
and  the  reason  for  the  prohibition,  as  before.  It  is 
neither  right  nor  politic  for  the  teacher  to  assume, 
as  many  do,  that  every  offence  comes  from  malicious 
intent.  Then  may  be  given  what  will  have  to  be 
repeated  hundreds  of  times,  in  one  form  or  another,  the 
Golden  Rule  of  the  schoolroom,  '•'•Do  7iothing  that  you 
would  not  do  if  the  eye  of  the  teachei'  were  upon  you.'''' 
Either  the  words  or  spirit  of  this  rule  must  be  kept 
constantly  in  mind  and  uniformly  followed. 

So  far  you  have  imposed  few  restraints.  Let  this 
course  be  continued  as  long  as  possible,  and  whenever 
the  liberty  of  pupils  is  abridged,  see  to  it  that  they 
have  a  good  reason  for  it.  Also  impress  upon  them 
by  practice  the  fact  that  the  rules  which  govern  their 
behavior  are  practically  made  by  themselves,  and  that 
to  abuse  any  privilege  they  may  have,  ought  of  course 
to  deprive  them  of  the  privilege. 

But  to  go  back  to  the  first  day  with  our  new  class. 
By  your  kindness  and  evident  fairness,  you  have  won 
the  respect  of  the  better  part  of  your  class.  This  will 
be  a  powerful  help  to  you  in  leading  the  more  wilful 
and  refractory  part  of  your  school.  You  go  on  with 
the  work  of  the  school,  showing  that  you  trust  every 
member  of  it.  At  length  there  is  disturbance  in  the 
room  from  one  or  more,  or  it  may  be  that  you  leave 
the  room  for  a  moment  and  find  upon  your  return 
evidences  of  disorder.  Stop  the  work,  and  ask  the 
attention  of  the  school  for  a  moment.  Say  to  them 
that  you  are  sorry  to  know  that  there  is  any  one  who 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  341 

is  willing  to  do  wrong  because  he  is  not  watched. 
Show  how  weak  such  a  boy  or  girl  must  be.  Compare 
him  with  those  unfortunate  and  weak  men  and  women 
who  have  to  dodge  the  policeman  for  fear  he  will  see 
them ;  show  the  injustice  that  is  done  others  in  making 
you  suspect  some  who  are  really  innocent,  and  who  are 
trying  to  do  their  best.  Now  is  the  time  to  get  them 
to  agree  with  you  that  it  is  much  better,  and  entirely 
within  the  power  of  every  pupil,  to  govern  his  own  con- 
duct. Then  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  for  you  to  exact 
a  pledge  from  every  boy  and  girl  under  your  charge 
that  an  effort  will  be  made  in  this  direction.  Do  not 
require  too  much  at  this  point.  They  have  made  a 
reasonable  promise,  one  they  are  able  to  keep,  when 
they  promise  to  try  to  take  care  of  themselves.  If  they 
promise  no  more  than  this,  you  will  have  a  far  greater 
hold  upon  them  than  if  you  made  them  promise  that 
they  would  govern  themselves.  You  know,  and  they 
will  discover  after  a  time,  that  they  would  break  such  a 
promise ;  but  you  know,  and  they  know,  that  they  can 
and  ought  to  keep  the  promise  to  try. 

Sooner  or  later  you  come  to  the  time,  in  the  natural 
order  of  events,  when  one  or  more  of  your  pupils  have 
not  done  as  they  promised  to  do.  That  is,  you  have 
found  them  dodging  you,  or  doing  something  disorderly 
behind  your  back,  or  in  your  absence  from  the  room. 
The  first  case  of  this  kind  demands  your  prompt  atten- 
tion. It  is  a  most  trying  time  for  you.  The  pupils' 
estimate  of  their  teacher's  wisdom  and  justice  is  in  sus- 
pense. Upon  your  action  at  this  time  may  depend  the 
success  or  failure  of  your  plan.  The  punishment  must 
not  be  too  slight,  nor  must  it  be  too  severe.     Above  all, 


342  MORAL  TRAINING,    ETC. 

it  must  not  be  arbitrary  ;  but  this,  as  every  punishment, 
must  naturally  follow  the  offence.  What  is  the  offence? 
Deception.  Doing  a  thing  because  you  were  not  look- 
ing. Plainl}'-,  then,  the  punishment  for  him  should  be 
that  he  must  be  watched,  —  he  of  all  the  school ;  no  one 
else.  It  is  a  notoriety  that  he  does  not  like ;  but  he 
sees,  and  all  his  mates  see,  that  it  is  just.  Let  him 
understand,  however,  that  he  will  be  trusted  as  he 
proves  his  sincerity  in  really  trying  to  govern  himself. 

By  this  time  your  pupils  are  thoroughly  convinced 
that  you  are  in  earnest  (that  is,  if  you  are  in  earnest) 
in  discouraging  something  wrong.  What  is  it?  Decep- 
tion in  every  form.  They  learn,  too,  that  you  are  in 
earnest  in  encouraging  something  good  and  right. 
What  is  it  ?     Obedience  to  authority  and  self-control. 

You  may  have  occasion  to  resort  to  various  appeals 
before  you  can  bring  your  pupils  to  do  right  in  all 
things  because  it  is  best.  One  means  of  encouragement 
may  be  the  "  roll  of  honor,"  consisting  of  all  who 
are  not  in  the  least  deceptive,  but  who  are  open 
and  honorable  in  all  their  actions.  They  are  trusted 
fully  and  entirely  by  you,  and  they  will  be  found  to 
assist  in  everything  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  the 
school.  Again,  there  may  be  others,  —  a  very  small 
number  if  the  right  methods  are  pursued,  —  who  do  not 
control  their  own  conduct,  and  who  are  not  making  an 
effort  to  do  so.  These  pupils  demand  your  serious  atten- 
tion. They  are  afflicted  with  a  moral  disease,  and  they 
should  be  most  carefully  treated.  Theyshould  be  labored 
with,  both  in  and  out  of  school.  The  help  of  their 
parents  and  of  the  other  pupils  should  be  sought,  and 
every  inducement  placed  before  them  to  change  their 


SCHOOL   GOVERNIMEIST.  343 

course.  When  punishment  is  resorted  to,  it  should  be 
in  a  kind  and  just  spirit,  and  as  near  as  possible  a  direct 
consequence  of  the  offence.  In  extreme  cases  all  social 
privileges  may  be  taken  away  from  the  offending  pupil 
while  he  is  in  or  near  the  schoolhouse,  he  not  being 
allowed  the  privilege  of  playing  Avitli  or  speaking  to  his 
mates.  He  is  to  be  kept  entirely  apart  from  the  rest 
of  the  school,  on  the  principle  that  his  influence  is  dan- 
gerous and  harmful. 

Thus  you  will  go  on  from  day  to  day,  following  out 
patiently  this  or  some  other  well-defined  plan,  until 
success  crowns  your  efforts;  not  the  fullest  and  most 
complete  success,  perhaps,  but  such  a  degree  as  encour- 
ages you  to  believe  that  every  one  of  your  pupils  is 
affected  by  a  desire  and  purpose  to  do  right,  —  not  from 
fear  of  any  external  consequence,  but  from  choice. 

Sympathy.  —  But  whatever  you  do  for  your  pupils, 
whether  it  is  by  example  or  precept,  whether  it  is  to 
enlarge  their  understandings  or  to  elevate  and  strengthen 
their  purposes,  do  not  forget  that  crowning  grace  of 
the  teacher  —  S3^mpathy.  It  is  a  bond  between  the 
teacher  and  his  pupils  by  means  of  which  his  influence 
will  be  felt,  and  without  which  the  highest  results  of  his 
work  cannot  be  realized. 

The  example  of  the  wisest  teachers  may  well  be  fol- 
lowed by  us.  Shall  we  ever  forget  the  pictures  drawn 
for  us  in  "  Schooldays  at  Rugby,"  where  the  old  doctor 
is  seen  at  all  times  as  a  sympathizing  friend  and  com- 
panion to  the  boys  ?  Can  we  wonder  at  the  influence  of 
Pestalozzi  which  has  extended  throughout  the  world, 
and  which  is  felt  to-day  bj'  us  all,  as  we  call  to  mind  the 
patience  with  which  he  worked   among   those    beggar 


344  MORAL  TRAINING,   ETC. 

children  at  Stanz,  gaining  their  love  by  the  power  of  his 
love  and  sympathy  ?  Do  we  not  recall  with  gratitude 
the  devotion  with  which  the  founder  of  the  kinder- 
garten studied  the  games  and  plays  of  little  children,  to 
know  how  best  he  could  enter  into  their  states  and  lead 
them  ?  It  is  for  us  to  imitate  the  noble  example  of  these 
great  teachers,  and,  so  far  as  we  can,  work  with  and  for 
the  children  who  are  placed  in  our  care.  Whether  we 
have  to  do  with  the  child  of  poverty  or  the  child  of 
wealth,  whether  the  child  is  bright  or  dull,  whether 
good  or  bad,  we  must  remember  that  the  destiny  and 
happiness  of  a  human  being  are  partly  in  our  hands,  and 
that  only  as  we  perceive  the  states  and  feel  the  needs  of 
the  child  are  we  instrumental  in  guiding  him  into  a 
higher  manhood. 


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Introd.  Price. 

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Athenaeum  Press  Series  : 

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Gummere:  Old  English  Ballads 00 

Schelling:  Ben  Jonson's  Timber 80 

Baker :  Plot-Book  of  Some  Elizabethan  Plays 00 

Cook:  A  First  Book  in  Old  English 1.50 

Shelley's  Defense  of  Poetry 50 

The  Art  of  Poetry 1.12 

Hunt's  What  is  Poetry? 50 

Newman's  Aristotle's  Poetics liO 

Addison's  Criticisms  on  Paradise  Lost 1.00 

Bacon's  Advancement  of  Learning 00 

Corson:  Primer  of  English  Verse 1.00 

Emery:  Notes  on  English  Literature 1.00 

English  Literature  Pamphlets :  Ancient  Mariner,  .05 ;  First 
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Fulton  &Trueblood:  Practical  Elocution Retail      1.50 

Choice  Readings,  $;i.50;  Chart  of  Vocal  Expression  .       2.00 

College  Critic's  Tablet 60 

Garnett:  English  Prose  from  Elizabeth  to  Victoria      ....      1.50 

Gayley  :  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature 1.50 

Genung:  Outlines  of  Rhetoric 1.00 

Elements  of  Rhetoric,  S1.25 ;  Rhetorical  Analysis      .      1.12 

Gummere :      Handbook  of  Poetics 1.00 

Hudson :  Harvard  Edition  of  Shakespeare's' Complete  Works :  — 

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Text-Book  of  Poetry ;  Text-Book  of  Prose    .     .Each      1.25 

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lockwood:      Lessons  in  English,  $^1.12;  Thanatopsis 10 

Maxcy  :  Tragedy  of  Hamlet 45 

Minto :  Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature 1.50 

Characteristics  of  English  Poets 1.50 

Newcomer  :     Practical  Course  in  English  Composition 80 

Phelps  :  English  Romantic  Movement 1.00 

Sherman :        Analytics  of  Literature 1.25 

Smith :  Synopsis  of  English  and  American  Literature  ...        .80 

Sprague  :         Milton's  Paradise  Lost  and  Lycidas 45 

Thayer:  The  Best  Elizabethan  Plays 1.25 

Thom  :  Shakespeare  and  Chaucer  Examinations 1.00 

White  :  Philosophy  of  American  Literature .'iO 

Whitney :        Essentials  of  English  Grammar 75 

Whitney  &  Lockwood :  English  Grammar 70 

Winchester :  Five  Short  Courses  of  Reading  in  English  Literature,        .40 

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